W!f 


ESSENTIALS  IN   HISTORY 

prepared  in  consultation  with 
ALBERT  BUSIINELL  HART 


^Essentials  in 
English  History 

ALBERT  PERRY  WALKER 


I^^^W^^^ti^^^   yC^ 


O 


^m^a/ 


8  ■•  ^';'^:• 


(:/o'.  ^4-X(rni^  ^^^C^AAe^n^ 


uCnM/cr.if/ir ^  yrjoAf-orfnO' 


Prof. Stephens 


Ci-n^ 


Pro?. Stephens 


ESSENTIALS     IN     HISTORY 


ESSlvXTIALS 


LN 


ENGLISH     HISTORY 


(FROM    rilK    EAHLIEST    HKCOUDS   TO 
THE    PRESENT    DAY) 


BY 

ALHEur  ri:uKV  walkku,  a.m. 

MASTER    IN    THE    ENGLISH    llHill    !^<  imilL,    BOSTON 

IN   CONSri.TATIoN    WITH 

ALUKUT    1!USI1X1:LL    llAKT,  LL.l). 

rUOFKSSUR   OK    III8TOBY,    HAKVAKD    UMVKR8ITT 


NEW  YORK  ■:■  (TNCINNATI:.  CHICAGO 

AMKUMAN     r.ooK     COM  PA  NY 


ESSENTIALS   IN  HISTORY 

A    SERIES    PREPARED    UNDER    THE     SUPERVISION    OF 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,  LL.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF     HISTORY,     HARVARD     UNIVERSITY 


ESSENTIALS  IN   ANCIENT  HISTORY 
By  ARTHUR  MATER  WOLFSON,  Ph.D. 

ESSENTIALS  IN   MEDI.^VAL  AND  MODERN 

HISTORY 

Bv  SAMUEL  B.   HARDING,  Ph.D. 

Ill  preparation 

ESSENTIALS   IN   ENGLISH   HISTORY 

By  albert    perry   AVALKER,   A.M. 

ESSENTIALS  IN   AMERICAN  HISTORY 

By   albert   BUSHNELL   HART,  LL.D. 


Copyright,  1905,  by 
ALBERT    PERRY  WALKER. 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London. 

essen.  eng.  hist. 
\v.  p.  I 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 

This  is  the  third  of  the  series  of  Essentials  in  History,  designed 
for  use  in  secondary  schools,  and  arranged  on  the  system  recommended 
in  the  Report  on  the  Study  of  History  in  Schools  hy  the  Committee 
of  tiie  American  Historical  Association.  Dr.  Wolfson's  hook,  ICssen- 
tials  in  Ancient  Ilisluri/,  describes  the  origins  of  civilization  in  Kgypt 
and  Mesopotamia,  the  bloom  of  (ireece,  the  rise  of  Rome,  the  spread 
f  Hellenic  civilization,  and  the  decay  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Pro- 
iVssor  Harding's  volume  follows  with  the  later  median-al  and  modern 
Euro}>ean  history,  from  about  SOU  a.i>.  to  tlie  present  time.  This 
]'resent  volume  is  a  consecutive  account  of  English  history.  The 
fourth  and  final  volume  treats  of  American  history. 

The  title  "  Essentials"  suggests  that  the  authors  of  all  the  volumes 
have  addressed  themselves  to  the  things  which  have  really  been  sig- 
nificant and  vital  in  the  development  of  western  civilization.  rers<m- 
ulities  and  events,  however  striking  in  themselves,  whicii  have  not  had 
a  clear  and  definite  effect  in  the  movement  of  the  world,  are  omitted. 
ill  onler  that  in  the  brief  space  available  the  essentials  may  be  nmre 
clearly  presented. 

It  is  the  plan  of  tfie  whole  series  to  give  a  maximum  amount  of 
space  to  the  text,  and  to  reduce  the  pedagogic  ap]iaratns  to  small 
dimensions,  depending  upon  the  teacher  to  secure  a  knowledge  of  the 
U'Xt,  and  to  bring  out  its  significance  in  class  work.  Each  volume 
Ls  divided  into  a  numl>er  of  chapters  corresponding  nearly  to  the 
number  of  weeks  in  a  school  year.  The  texts  are  continuous, 
although  the  uuml)ered  sectional  headings  in  the  margin  show  the 
progress  of  thought  and  the  chronological  sequence.  Each  author 
has  in  a  few  prefatory  pages  indicateil  how  he  thinks  his  book  may 
best  l»e  u.sed  ;  and  all  are  alike  in  adding  to  each  chapter  a  brief  bibliog- 
raphy referring  to  "  fieograi>hy,"  "  .Secondary  aulhoriti«»s,"  "  .Snin*es," 
and  "Hlustrative  works,"  intended  to  l»e  a  (piick  and  easy  w.\v  of 
referring  pupils  to  such  additional  readings  as  tiie  teacher  may  think 
satisfactory.  Each  ciiapter  is  also  furnished  with  two  lists  of  topics: 
the  first,  or  "Suggestive  topics,"  are   related  pretty  closely  t«i    the 

5 


6  GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 

text  and  to  the  ordinary  handbooks  almost  everywhere  accessible  ;  the 
second,  or  "  Search  topics,"  expect  a  search  into  a  wider  range  of 
authorities,  including  sources.  The  appendix  matter  has  been  made 
brief;  it  consists  of  a  few  documents  actually  necessary  to  make 
clear  the  allusions  and  discussions  of  the  text. 

Besides  the  chapter  bibliographies,  Appendix  A  is  a  "  Brief  List  of 
Books,"  which  is  intended  for  the  teacher's  desk  and  for  constant  con- 
sultation by  the  pupils.  Such  a  list,  costing  about  twenty-five  dollars, 
will  greatly  add  both  to  the  soundness  and  to  the  interest  of  the  course. 
In  the  chapter  bibliographies  the  first  references  are  commonly  to 
some  of  these  specially  indicated  works.  For  schools  or  individuals 
who  possess  or  have  access  to  a  larger  library,  a  "  General  Bibliog- 
raphy "  of  the  most  important  books  upon  the  subject  of  the  volume 
will  be  found  appended,  including  the  titles  of  most  of  the  books 
mentioned  in  the  chapter  bibliographies.  Such  a  list  will  be  service- 
able for  making  purchases  to  fill  up  a  school  or  town  library,  and  the 
books  which  ought  first  to  be  procured  are  denoted  by  an  asterisk. 

As  to  the  use  of  the  volume  on  English  history,  Mr.  Walker  has 
made  his  own  suggestions.  A  good  teacher  will  always  keep  in  mind 
the  necessity  of  careful  study  of  the  text-book,  as  the  repository  of  facts 
and  principles  necessary  for  the  pupil  to  know.  In  order  to  train 
pupils  to  analyze  and  get  the  real  meaning  out  of  what  they  study,  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  is  a  brief  "  Summary,"  which  is  not  a  mere 
recapitulation  of  the  previous  sections,  but  a  succinct  statement  of  the 
whole  ground  covered  by  the  chapter. 

Every  good  school  course  ought  to  include  some  parallel  reading 
from  sources  or  from  good  secondary  books  ;  and  such  outside  reading 
is  easily  directed  through  the  chapter  bibliographies,  which  refer  to 
.  a  variety  both  of  sources  and  of  later  writers. 

Throughout  the  series  maps  are  plentiful.  It  is  expected  that 
teachers  will  insist  on  the  location  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the 
text,  and,  further,  that  they  will  make  clear  the  geographical  relief 
so  far  as  it  plays  a  part  in  history. 

Many  schools  require  written  work  of  some  kind,  and  the  teachers 
wnll  find  hints  for  such  work  in  the  special  books  on  the  subject  men- 
tioned in  Appendix  A.  For  beginners  topics  must  be  such  as  may  be 
simply  and  easily  answered  out  of  a  small  number  of  available  books; 
so  far  as  possible  sources  should  be  used,  because  of  their  suggestive- 
ness  and  spirit;  and  such  work  ought  to  be  an  adjunct,  and  not  the 
staple  of  a  pupil's  work. 

ALBERT  BUSHNELL   HART. 


THE   AUTHOR   TO  THE   TEACHER 

TnK  first  live  .sections  of  tliis  book  (pp.  11-13)  suggest  broadly  on 
what  a  pupil  uiakiug  a  first  survey  of  English  history  should  be  led 
to  focus  liis  thou,i;ht ;  namely,  on  the  great  movements  by  which 
ancient  England  has  become  modern  England,  and  on  the  forces 
which  have  given  rise  to  these  movements.  In  this  book,  therefore, 
emphasis  is  laid  on  (1)  the  fusing  of  several  races  into  the  Englisli 
people ;  {'J)  tlte  successful  working  out  by  that  people  of  two  great 
problems  in  government,  —  that  of  self-government  under  free  demo- 
cratic forms  and  that  of  governing  remote  de(iendencies ;  (-i)  the 
exploitation  of  two  great  fields  of  industry,  manufacturing  and  com- 
merce; and  (4)  the  effect  of  race  tendencies  in  promoting  social  and 
intellectual  progress.  At  the  same  time  the  author  luvs  taken  pains 
not  to  distort  the  student's  ix?rs2>ective  of  events  by  a  too  brief  treat- 
ment of  dramatic  but  comparatively  resultless  episodes,  like  the  Komau 
occupation  of  Britain,  or  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 

The  t^-acher  should  make  sure  at  the  outset  that  tlie  opening  survey 
of  the  field  conveys  clear  ideas  to  the  pupil,  and  should  lead  him  to 
refer  to  it  at  every  stiige  in  the  study.  Throughout  the  book  the 
account  of  events  is  approximately  chronological,  but  social  conditions, 
which  change  but  slowly,  are  disciLssed  in  special  chajiters  at  suitable 
intervals.  Events  are  grouped  under  reigns  until  the  jK-riod  when 
monarchs  no  longer  molded  the  history  of  their  times.  Within  the 
chapters  strict  chronological  sequence  ha.s  been  deemed  less  important 
than  unity  ir>  the  treatment  of  a  given  subject. 

The  subdivision  into  thirty-eight  chapters  makes  possible  the 
assignment  of  one  chapter  a  week  for  a  .school  year;  but  the  author 
has  found  it  much  more  pn»fitable  t<j  cover  the  whole  field  more 
rapidly,  and  then,  by  way  of  review,  to  havt-  the  pupils  tnice  specific 
classes  of  subjects  (war,  taxation,  political  changes,  industry,  litvra- 
ture)  continuously  through  the  whole  course  of  English  history.  Thus 
the  pupil  is  compelled  to  separate  from  the  mass  of  facts  tlu>se  which 
relate  to  his  particular  subject;  to  review  over  and  over  the  sequence 

7 


8  THE  AUTHOR  TO  THE  TEACHER 

of  dynasties,  i^eriods,  and  significant  epochs;  and  to  break  away  from 
the  tyranny  of  the  printed  page  and  construct  his  own  narrative. 

Great  pains  has  been  taken  to  make  the  maps  adequately  ilhistrate 
the  text,  but  their  study  should  be  supplemented  by  constant  prac- 
tice in  locating  places  and  lines  upon  outline  maps,  and  by  any  other 
methods  that  will  tend  to  correlate  geography  and  history.  The  illus- 
trations are  almost  without  exception  views  of  real  objects,  chosen  for 
their  historic  interest  and  suggestiveness.  They  should  be  made  the 
subject  of  discussion  in  the  class. 

The  suggestive  topics  at  the  ends  of  the  several  chapters  are  designed 
to  make  the  pupil  reflect  ujion  the  facts  that  he  has  learned,  and  to 
suggest  profitable  exercises  in  comparison  and  in  the  study  of  causal 
relations.  The  search  topics  have  been  utilized  to  point  the  way  to 
additional  information,  and  no  question  or  topic  has  been  inserted 
merely  as  a  puzzle.  The  bibliographies  aim  to  call  attention  to  books 
of  two  classes:  (1)  for  the  pupil,  readable  accounts  by  trustworthy 
historians,  and  source  material  to  illustrate  these  accounts;  (2)  for 
the  teacher,  certain  exhaustive  and  standard  works  suited  to  the 
mature  student.  In  the  use  of  source  books,  teachers  should  not 
require  too  much  work  or  expect  too  many  tangible  results.  These 
books  are  mines  of  illustrative,  not  of  structural,  materials.  The 
wise  method  is  to  assign  to  each  pujul  only  a  single  reference  to  look 
up  at  one  time,  a  single  topic  to  investigate.  The  list  of  illustrative 
works  ranges  from  the  slight  woi-ks  of  Hentj^  (which  have  been  in- 
cluded because  experience  proves  that  through  them  many  pujiils  of 
immature  age  gain  an  increased  interest  in  history)  to  the  great 
literary  masterpieces  of  Shakespeare,  Scott,  Thackei'ay,  and  Tennyson. 

To  sum  up,  this  book  aims  to  present  to  students  of  high  school  age 
such  information  regarding  English  history  as  can  be  assimilated  in 
a  single  year;  information  selected  for  its  power  to  enrich  and  to 
discipline  the  mind,  and  so  treated  as  to  aid  the  teacher  in  accom- 
plishing this  result. 

My  thanks  are  due  to  ]\Ir.  Hyman  Askovith  for  valuable  assistance 
in  preparing  the  chapter  bibliographies. 

ALBERT   TERRY   WALKER. 


CONTENTS 


PAOB 


CHAPTF.U 

I.     Course  and  Conditions  of  English  History        .        .        .11 


CUNCilKSTS   OF   ENGLAND 
II.     The  Honians  in  Britain  (55  b.c.^49  a.i>.) 

III.  Celts  aiiainst  Teutons  (44!)-827) 

IV.  Early  En,i;lish  Instituti(Mis 

V.     Anglo-Saxons  against  Danes  (787-1042) 
VI.     Anglo-SaxiMis  against  Normans  (104"2-1087) 


25 
:!«! 
"(5 
65 
80 


NoKMAN    I  r.lDALISM 
VII.     The  Femlalization  of  English  Institutions  .         .05 

VIII.     England  under  the  Later  Norman  Kings  (lnf<7-1154)       .  115 

IX.     Restoration  of  Order  (1154-1100) 12S 

X.     Economic  and  Social  I*rogress  (1100-1350)      .         .         .141 

CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

XI.     Defense  of  Liberty  by  the  Barons  (1100-1272)  .  150 

XIl.     First  Steps  in  rarliamentary  Government  (1272-1307)    .  171 

XIII.     Misgovernment  under  the  Later  I'lantagenets  (i;iO7-l.;00)  185 

XI\'.     Social  and  Economic  Progress  (1250-1400)      .  .201 

DECADENCE   OF   FEUDALISM 

XV.     Foreign  NVars  under  the  Lancastrian  Kings  (1390-1453)  217 

XVI.      Dynastic  Wars  nf  York  and  Lancaster  (1447-1485)         .  230 

THE    TUDOR    MONARCHY 

X \'  II.      Religious  Revolution  under  the  Early  Tudors  (1485-1547)  245 
Will.     Crisis  in  Religion  under  Edward  VI.  and  Mary    Tudor 

(1547-1558) -'^^ 

XIX.     Political  Crisis  under  Elizabeth  (1558-U503)    .         .         .  272 
XX.     Intellcclual.    Industrial,  and  Social   Progres.s  under  the 

Tudors '-^88 

STI  .MMS    AND    I'AKI.l AMENT 

XXI.     Contest  over  the  Royal  Prerogative  (lfin:i-lfi40)  .  300 

XXII.     Usurpation  of  Power  by  the  Long  Parliament  (1(M0-1(H2)  317 

XXIII.  The  Great  Rebellion  (1<;12-1040) •125 

XXIV,  Cromwell  and  the  Commonwealth  (H">40-10<10)        .         .  ;W9 

0 


10 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER . 

XXV.     The  Restored  Stuart  Monarchy  (1660-1673) 
XXVI.     Fall  of  the  Stuarts  (1673-1688) 

RISE   OF    PARTY   GOVERNMENT 

XXVII.     Limitation    of    the    Royal    Authority:    William    III. 

(1689-1702)  

XXVIII.     Whigs  versus  Tories  (1702-1715) 

STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

XXIX.  Whig  Regimes  of  Walpole  and  Pitt  (1721-1761)  . 

XXX.  George  IIL  and  tlie  New  Absolutism  (1763-1789) 

XXXI.  Life  and  Manners  in  the  Eighteenth  Century 

XXXIL  Period  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars  (1789-1815) 

INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

XXXIII.  Local  Conditions  (1783-1820)        .         . 

XXXIV.  The  Removal  of  Abuses  (1820-1850)     .        .        .        . 

GREATER   ENGLAND 

XXXV.     Foreign  and  Colonial  Interests  (1820-1858)  . 
XXXVI.     Reforms  and  Expansion  (1858-1886)     .         .         .         . 

XXXVII.     The  United  Kingdom  since  1885 

XXXVIII.     England's  Contribution  to  Civilization  .         .         .         . 


PAGE 

355 
371 


400 


413 
427 
442 
455 


470 
482 


497 
510 
523 
537 


Bibliography i,  iii 

Selections  from  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  Histor\;       ix 

Index xxiv 

Genealogical  Tables     .         .  73,  127,  173,  221,  228,  263,  370,  394,  481 

EEFERENCE   MAPS 


Physical  Map  of  the  British 

Isles  .        .         .         14,  15 

Roman  Britain  ...  26 
Teutonic  Britain  ...  40 
Norman  England  ...  94 
Plantagenet  England  .  .142 
Scotland  in  1300  .  .  .170 
France  in  the  Hundred  Years' 

War 190 

England  during  the  Wars  of 

the  Roses .         .         .         .232 
Europe,  Sixteenth  Century     .     246 


The  Netherlands,  about  1650  .  280 
England  in  the  Civil  War  .  326 
Ireland :  settlements  .  .  340 
The  British  Isles,  1900  .  384,  385 
Eastern  North  America  in  1754  421 
Coal  Fields  and  Canals,  1800  .  444 
Europe  in  1792  .  .  .  454 
India:  Growth  of  British  Do- 
main ....  474 
Central  Asia  :  British  and  Rus- 
sian Frontiers  in  1900 
The  British  Empire 


.     516 
544,  645 


ESSENTIALS    IX    ENGLISH    IIISTOUV 

rHAPTER    I. 
COURSE    AND   CONDITIONS   OF    ENGLISH   HISTORY 
(A)    TuK  Chief  Movements  ix  English  Histokv 

Before  a  student  undertakes  to  study  the  history  of  any 
country  in  detail,  he  will  do  well  to  take  ii  brief  survey  of  the 
great  moveineuts  by  which  its  progress  has  been  nuuked.    ^   survey  of 
He  will  thus  perceive  clearly  the  road  he  is  to  traverse,     the  field  of 
and  will  be  less  likely  to  lose  his  bearings  and  become  °*"  ^ 

confused  among  the  innumerable  minor  events  which  have 
contributed  to  or  have  accompanied  these  primary  movements. 
Such  a  survey  of  English  history  shows  that  the  British  Isles 
have  formed  the  theater  for  the  development  of  four  succes- 
sive invading  peoples,  each  of  which  brought  with  it  from  the 
neighboring  "Continent"  of  Europe  a  different  type  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  each  of  which  has  left  upon  the  life  of  the  islands 
some  distinctive  impress. 

(1)   Some  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  the  Celts  (or 

Kelts)  brought  to  the  island  of  Great  Britain  their  primitive 

form  of  civilization.     About  the  beginning  of  that  era     g  Earliest 

these  Celts  were   conquered,  though    not  extinguished,   political  de- 

,       .  •   1    T>  yelopment 

by  invaders  from  the  Continent,  the  imi)erial   Romans. 

The  newcomers,  during  four  centuries  of  control  over  Britain, 
failed  to  impart  to  its  people  any  of  the  political  vigor 
which  Rome  had  in  her  prime  ;  and  when  disorders  in  Italy 
finally  forced  them  to  abandon  the  island,  early  in  the  fifth 
century  a.d.,  they  left  it  but  little  advanced  in  jtolitical  or 
social  development. 

11 


■;,  ?1^';  vC-0tf'^SE  AKsfT^,  CONDITIONS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY 

(2)  The  territory  thus  relinquished  was  soon  seized  upon 
by  a  group  of  Teutonic  peoples  from  the  north  of  Europe,  the 
Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons.  Tljese  races,  although  still  semi- 
barbarous,  soon  showed  a  remarkable  instinct  for  creating 
social  and  political  institutions.  They  promptly  changed 
their  government  from  the  tribal  to  the  monarchical  form  in 
order  to  meet  their  new  conditions ;  they  changed  their  roving 
habits  and  developed  a  strong  love  of  the  soil  where  they  had 
taken  root ;  and,  above  all,  they  showed  an  intense  conserva- 
tism, —  a  quality  which  gave  permanence  to  every  succes- 
sive improvement  which  they  wove  into  the  fabric  of  their 
civilization. 

(3)  These  early  comers  were  disciplined  into  a  rude  sem- 
blance of  nationality  and  order  by  six  centuries  of  strife  with 

3.  Growth      their  Celtic  predecessors,  with  one  another,  and  with  their 
of  national-   ^^j.^g  rivals  the  Danes,  a  body  of  their  kinspeople  whose 
Middle  Ages   migration  to  Britain  was  deferred  too  late  to  give  them 
an  equal  chance  in  the  struggle. 

(4)  The  Anglo-Saxons  and  Danes  in  their  turn  suffered 
invasion  and  conquest  at  the  hands  of  a  limited  body  of  Nor- 
mans (1066).  This  hardy  people,  although  of  the  same^  stock 
as  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Danes,  were  by  nature  more  enterpris- 
ing; and,  because  of  their  more  fortunate  location  upon  the 
western  coast  of  the  Continent,  had  made  greater  progress  in 
political  and  social  life,  and  in  all  the  arts  and  industries  by 
which  civilization  is  advanced. 

During  the  following  two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  these 
four  elements,  Celt,  Saxon,  Dane,  and  Norman,  gradually  be- 
came welded  into  unity,  and  worked  out  an  efficient  political 
system.  Such  a  development  was  aided  by  their  isolation 
from  the  Continent;  but  the  monarchs  of  England  failed  to 
realize  the  strength  of  their  insular  position,  and  tried  again 
and  again,  though  vainly,  to  unite  the  territories  of  France 
and  England  into  a  single  state. 


CUir.l"    MnVK.MKNrs    (>F    KN't-LISlI    illSlOUY  1 :5 

The  Iteginning  of  the  >r(Klein  l'3ra,  inaiktMl  by  the  disi-ovcries 
of  Cohimhiis  :intl  others,  fomul  the  imitied  Englisli  peophi  ready 
to   enter   into    a   contest  of    European    nations    for    the      4.  Growth 
tUuuinatiou  of  the  greater  worUl  then    revealetl.     Thny   °^  '^^od^ern 
won  rii-h  territories  and  fame  abroad,  at  the  same  time  times 

that  tliey  perfected  their  political  system  at  home.  Meanwhile 
England  united  to  herself  three  lesser  units,  Wales.  Scotland, 
and  Ireland,  and  laid  the  foundations  of  a  vast  colonial  empire. 

Finallv,  l)y  defeating  Napoleon's  ambitious  schemes,  (Jreat 
I'.ritain  won  a  leading  place  among  the  half  dozen  Great  Powers 
which  thenceforth  were  to  control  the  old  world,  and  with 
the  nineteenth  century  entered  upon  a  career  of  industrial  and 
commercial  expansion  paralleled  only  by  that  of  her  emanci- 
pated offspring,  the  United  States  of  America.' 

From  the  time  of  the  Roman  occupation  onward,  the  inhabit- 
ants of  southern  and  eastern  England  won  their  living  by 
tilling  the  rich  soil  of  the  valleys  and  plains.     A  little  5.  Eag- 

later,  sheep  grazing  on  mot»rlands  and  hillsides  enriched  ^yg^rial  de- 
them  with  wool,  their  chief  article  of  export  in  the  early  velopment 
commercial  period.  The  growth  of  commerce  fostered  a  spirit 
of  enterprise  which  soon  made  England  mistress  of  the  seas, 
ind  a  vast  fishing  industry  added  to  her  sources  of  wealth  ; 
while  .seaport  townis — such  as  Bristol,  Chester,  Plymouth, 
Varmoutli,  and  Portsmouth  (map,  p.  385)  —  grew  up  at  the 
mouth  of  every  navigable  stream.  Then,  when  modern  inven- 
tion made  it  possiljle  to  harness  the  forces  of  nature  for  the  serv- 
ice of  man,  the  center  of  population  and  of  industrial  activity 
-hifted  to  the  mountainous  nortliwest,  whose  water  power,  fuel, 
mineral  deposits,  and  lumber  were  then  Hrst  available. 

I'l'hf  rlianges  Iutc  mitlincd  sujiKcst  a  wdhI  of  warning'  in  rt'n:inl  t.i  tlic  use 
of  nanus.  .\s  a  >;»'oj,'raplii<-al  expn-ssion.  •' (ireat  Britain, "  or  "Britain." 
iiieansthf  lar^rst  ..f  the  Britisli  Isles  :  politiially,  "  (irfat  Britain"  means  the 
Initeil  Kiiii;ili.iii  whicli  lias  exist«^l  sinee  17<»7  ami  now  .Mvupies  all  the  ish>s. 
"  Kn<;lan<r'  may  mean  (1)  tlie  rei,'ioii  south  of  .St-otlaml  and  east  of  Wales  ; 
(■>)  the  parent  kin^'.lotii  -.f  tlie  British  Empire;  (3)  when  use<l  for  brevity, 
tlie  empire  its«'lf. 


14 


10       COURSE   AND   CONDITIONS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY 


(B)  Influence  of  Physical  Conditions  on  English 

HlSTOKV 

Many  of  the  before-mentioned  changes  have  resulted  in  part 
from  ph^^sical  conditions,  such  as  land  surface,  climate,  and 

„    „  location.      "Geograiihy    explains    history,"    and    a   pre- 

6.  Contour  c     l    j  c  .  j  r 

of  the  Brit-  liminary  study  of  some  of  these  conditions  is  therefore 

ish  Isles 

necessary. 

The  theater  of  the  development  of  the  English  nation  is  a 
group  of  about  five  thousand  islands,  of  which  two  are  much 
larger  than  the  rest.  The  area  of  tire  entire  group  is  about 
121,000  square  miles  —  or  nearly  that  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  Indiana.  Of  this  area,  almost  seven  tenths  belongs  to  the 
island  of  Great  Britain,  and  a  little  more  than  one  fourth 
to  Ireland.  The  islands  have  a  great  economic  advantage  in 
their  irregular  coast  line.  While  Europe  has  but  one  mile 
of  seacoast  to  every  200  square  miles  of  area,  the  ratio  of 
coast  to  area  in  the  British  Isles  is  ten  times  as  great. 
Furthermore,  this  sea  exposure  is  the  more  valuable  because 
Britain  contains  no  great  midland  mountain  ranges  to  make 
internal  transit  difficult,  as  is  the  case,  for  instance^^  in 
Italy.  The  highest  peak  in  Scotland  is  Ben  Nevis  (4406  ft.) 
in  Wales  is  Snowdon  (3571  ft.),  and  in  England  is  Scafell 
(3210  ft.).  All  the  mountains  are  grouped  within  limited 
areas,  and  the  rest  of  the  surface,  broadly  speaking,  is  low 
enough  to  be  readily  accessible,  and  high  enough  to  be  easily 
drained. 

One  of  the  elevated  areas,  the  Pennine  Chain,  is  a  strip  of 
high  rolling  country  averaging  twenty  miles  wide,  extending 

-  Tj-      .  .     from  the  Cheviot  Hills  on  the   Scottish  border  to  the 

7.  Mountain 

systems  of     Peak  of  Derbyshire  in  mid-England.     On  the  east  are 

broad  moors  and  wolds,  on  the  west  the  slope  is  steeper. 

Near  this  chain  in  the  northwest  are  the   high  and  rugged 

mountains  of  the  Lake  District  in  Westmoreland  and  Cumber- 


INFLUENCE    OF    I'llYSICAL   CONDITUtNS  17 

laiul ;  fartlior  soutli,  west  of  the  tliinl  meridian,  are  the  less 
picturesque  mouutains  of  Wales,  and  the  lower  mountains  and 
hills  of  southwestern  England,  extending  from  the  elevated 
moorlands  of  Somerset  and  Devonshire  to  Lands  End.  Else- 
where, the  low  surface  of  England  is  diversified  only  by  rolling 
hills  and  elevated  plains,  which  barely  serve  to  define  the  water 
courses  of  the  country.  Such  are  Salisbury  Plain  in  the  south- 
central  part,  and  radiating  from  this  the  Cotswold  and  Chiltem 
Hills,  and  the  North  and  South  Downs. 

The  sweeping  curve  of   the  southwestern  mountains,  con- 
tinued through  the  Cotswolds  and  the  Pennine  Chain,  forms 
the  chief  watershed  of  England,  and  determines  its  prin-        g   ^^.^^^ 
cipal  river  systems.     Most  of  the  waters  on  its  eastern     systems  of 
slope  find  their  way  to  the  sea  through  three  large  basins.  ^^  ^° 

The  Thames,  England's  chief  river,  in  its  course  of  215  miles 
drains  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Downs  and  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Chilterns ;  the  Wash  —  a  shallow  basin  of  the 
sea  —  receives  the  northern  drainage  from  the  Chilterns  and 
that  of  much  of  the  midland  i)lain  ;  the  Huml)er  drains  most 
of  the  eastern  Pennine  slope.  On  the  west  of  the  watershed, 
the  Severn,  longer  and  only  less  important  than  the  Thames, 
receives  the  flow  from  much  of  southern  England  and  Wales; 
and  in  the  north  are  many  shorter  streams,  of  which  the  Dee 
and  the  >rerseyare  most  important,  because  of  their  fiord-like 
mouths. 

North  of  the  end  of  the  Pennine  T'hain,  Britain  presents  an 
irregular  surface.     The  tumbled  mountain  masses  of  Scotland 
are  cleft  in  two  places   by  partly   flooded   valleys;  the      9.  Topog- 
more  southerly  of  these,  opening  into  the  Firth  of  Forth         Scotland 
and  the  Clyde,  is  the  more  important,  as  it  gives  access   and  Ireland 
to  the  entire  Scotch  Lowlands.     Ireland,  which   is  separated 
from    Britain   by   a   wide   channel,   is  of   a  shallow   "basin" 
shape,  with   few  and  scattered  elevations.     It  therefore    h:is 
few  navigable  streams,  and  is  but  poorly  drained. 


18       COURSE   AND   CONDITIONS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY 

These  physical  features  of  the  British  Isles  have  an  impor- 
tant effect  upon  the  climate.     Ireland,  low  and   flat,  has  no 
10    Influ-      protection  from  the  warm,  moisture-laden  winds  of  the 
ence  of  Atlantic  Ocean.     Its  climate  is  therefore  too  wet.      In 

on  develop-   Great  Britain,  on  the  other  hand,  the  western  mountain 
ment  ranges  condense  upon  their   cold  heights  the  excess  of 

moisture  from  the  ocean,  and  send  it  back  in  numerous 
streams,  the  rapid  currents  of  which  furnish  power  for  manu- 
facturing the  materials  found  in  her  mines  and  the  products  of 
her  soil ;  while  the  deep  clefts  in  these  broken  ranges,  flooded 
by  the  sea,'furnish  ample  harbors  for  the  ships  which  distrib- 
ute her  manufactured  products  over  the  entire  world.  Ex- 
posed Ireland  receives  fifty  inches  of  rainfall  annually,  with 
great  injury  to  her  low-lying  plains;  while  sheltered  eastern 
Britain,  receiving  upon  her  gently  sloping  downs  but  half  that 
amount,  enjoys  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  agriculture, 
and  indeed  for  all  the  varied  human  activities.  The  temperate 
climate,  neither  too  enervating  nor  too  harsh,  and  the  long  days 
of  summer,  are  alike  favorable  to  human  progress. 

The  isolation  of  the  primitive  islanders  of  course  made  their 

development  in  civilization  different  from  that  of  the  peoples 

11.  Influ-      ^^   southern  or  even  western   Europe.     Although   their 

ence  of  nearness  to  the  Continent  led  them  in  time  to  copy  its 

location  on     ....  ,      „  .■-,    ^■,  ,    ^ 

develop-        institutions  instead  of  creating  wholly  new  ones,  yet  dur- 

ment  jj-jg  |^]^g  ^Q^g  period  before  intercourse  with  the  Continent 

became  easy  and  frequent,  this  transplanted  civilization  came 
to  have  a  marked  form  of  its  own.  Then,  too,  the  English 
made  more  rapid  political  progress  behind  their  salt-water 
barriers  than  the  war-harried  peoples  of  the  Continent. 

The  southeastern  angle  of  Britain  lies  nearest  to  the  main- 
land of  Europe  ;  and  here  was  the  point  at  which  the  Celts, 
and  later  the  Teutons,  gained  access  to  the  island.  Further- 
more, the  Thames,  which  discharges  into  the  North  Sea  near 
this  southeastern  angle,  drains  a  large  portion  of  the  territory 


EARLIEST    IMIAniTANTS   OK    Hini'AIN  19 

of  southern  Britain,  :ind  makes  all  the  interior  of  the  country 
easy  of  ai-i-ess  from  Kurui»t*.  This  geograjihical  situation, 
therefore,  not  only  determined  what  part  of  the  islands  should 
be  earliest  developed,  but  also  made  London  almost  necessarily 
the  commercial  and  economic  center,  tirst  of  western  Kunjpe, 
and  later  of  the  world. 

(C)   The  Earliest  Ixhabitaxts  of  Britain- 

For  information    regarding  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  any 
country,  the  student  must  look,  not  to  written  records,  but  to 
what  may  be  termed  "  unrecorded  history"  —  the  body  of      12    Unre- 
facts  derived   by  scientific  reasoning  from   indirect  but     ^°^  tory^of 
trustworthy  evidence.     For   exami)le,  geological  science  Britain 

informs  us  that,  because  of  movements  of  the  earth's  crust, 
large  areas  of  land  in  Britain  now  stand  at  different  levels 
above  the  sea  from  those  which  they  once  occupied.  It  further 
testifies  that  Britain  and  the  Continent  were  once  connected 
by  land  masses.  In  those  remote  ages,  elephants,  rhinoceroses, 
lions,  and  bears  wandered  freely  from  European  to  British  for- 
ests; and  probably  all  the  species  of  plants  and  animals  a\> 
parently  native  to  the  British  Isles  really  migrated  thither 
before  the  present  bed  of  the  English  Channel  and  the  North 
Sea  sank  and  became  flooded  by  the  ocean.  (Jeology  and  kin- 
dred sciences  furnish  abundant  proof  that  the  earliest  men  in 
Britain,  also,  came  by  land  or  sea  from  the  Continent. 

Andueologists  trace  several  periods  in  the  development  of 
the  hinnan  race.  During  the  earliest  period,  men  lived  in 
caves,   wore   clothing   of   skins   roughly  .sewed  together  prehis 

with  bone  needles,  and  ate  shellfish,  l)erries,  and  other       toric  men 
foods  easily  obtained.      In   their  struggles  with    nature 
and  with  wild  beasts,  they  gradually  learned  to  make  use  of 
roughly  chipj^ed  stone  tools  and  weapons,  whence  their  age  is 
known  as  tlie  I'aleolithic  (ancient-stone)   Age. 

.\fter  a  lapse  of  centuries,  the   I'aleolithic  nierged  into  the 


20       COURSE    AND    CONDITIONS   OF   ENGLISH    HISTORY 


Neolitliic  (new-stone)  Age,  marked  by  the  use  of  more  finished 
stone  weapons  with  fitted  wooden  handles,  woven  cloth,  and 
pottery ;  then  followed  ages  when  bronze  and 
iron  came  successively  into  use. 
y  (     \\1111\^  That  man  occupied  Britain  dur- 

ing each  of  these  ages  we  have 
abundant  evidence.  In  river  de- 
posits and  in  caves  are  found  flint 
Chipped  Stone  tools  and.  weapons  of  the  paleolithic 
men  dating  from  a  period  before 
1000  B.C.,  and  in  other  deposits  are 
found  tool-dressed  stones  with  accurately  shaped 
mortises  hewn  out  by  neolithic  men.  Traces  of 
the  men  of  the  Bronze  and  Iron  ages  are  espe- 
cially numerous.     Their  huge  "  barrows  "  (burial 

mounds), 


Arrowhead. 

Neolithic  Age. 


Bronze  Celt. 
Bronze  Age. 


Bowl-shaped  Barrow. 

Near  Avebury ;  clay  burial  mound  20  feet  in 
diameter,  5  feet  high. 


their  "dol- 
mens "  (sacred  stone  pil- 
lars), their  flint  and 
bronze  weapons  of  war, 
shields  and  battle-axes, 
their  tools  in  the  shape 
of  chisels  and  spades, 
their  ornaments  in  the 
form  of  collars,  necklaces,  and  bracelets,  their  dishes  of  sun- 
dried  pottery,  and  their  metal  coins,  all  testify  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  considerable  degree  of  civilization  in  Britain  at  least 
as  early  as  the  year  200  b.c. 

Ethnology,  the  science  of  race  origins,  tells  us  that  at  the 

beginning  of  the  Neolithic  Age  the  island  of  Great  Britain  was 

inhabited  by  two  types  of  people  :  one,  now  called  the 

X4<     olXCCCS" 

sion  of  races   Ivernian,  low  of  stature  and  dark  of  hair  and  eyes;  the 

m  Britain      Q^her  of  Scandinavian  type,  taller  in  stature  and  light  in 

complexion.     During  the  Bronze  and  Iron  ages  these  neolithic 

men  were  forced  westward  by  two  groups  of  Celts  from  the 


EAKLIKST    INHAIUIANTS    UK    HIM  IAIN 


•21 


Continent,  the  Goidels,  or  Gael,  coming  first,  and  the  Brythons, 
or  liiitons  (nieaiiing  probably  ''  ch>thed  men"),  following  close 
behind.  It  is  probable  that  the  Gael  were  early  driven  by  the 
advancing  liritons  into  the  mountains  of  Wales,  the  western 
islands,  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  The  Uritons,  in 
their  turn,  -were  forced  westward  by  swarms  of  Kelgic  Celts 
from  Gaul,  —  the  latter  being  driven  across  the  Channel  by 
Teutonic  tribes  (the  Franks  and  the  Saxons),  who  were  them- 
selves yielding  to  pressure  from  people  farther  east. 


NEOLITHIC  MEN 


CELTS  -^-  TEUTONS^SLAVS- 


HUNS^  MONGOLS 

iir  Tmuirs 


L      >.iii,lin:ivi:in      J  Ll'.ril..iis-^l!elf;ic  I  .ItsJ  LKniiik- J 

Eakly  DisTRiuLTiox,  Axu  Westwaku  Pkessi.ke,  of  Races. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  Britain  is  of 
course  very  incomplete.  In  southern  Britain,  immense  monu- 
mental stones  dating  from  before  the  Christian  era,  such  as 
those  of  Stonehenge  and  Avebury,  probably  mark  the  location 
of  great  religious  centers.  Defensive  works  like  the  Wansdike 
and  Grimsdike  (in  Wiltshire)  probably  mark  the  scenes  of 
struggles  between  the  possessing  and  the  invading  races.  It  is 
said  that  Phoenician  traders  visited  the  shores  of  Britain  in  very 


Stoneue.nuk. 


22       COURSE   AND   CONDITIONS   OF   ENGLISH   HISTORY 

early  times  to  procure  tin  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  Pytheas,  sent 
by  the  Greek  colony  of  Massilia  in  330  b.c.  to  find  tin-producing 
lands  in  the  northwest,  first  made  widely  known  the  possibili- 
ties of  trade  with  Britain.  Posidonius,  a  Greek  geographer, 
visited  and  wrote  about  the  island  in  the  first  century  b.c,  but 
the  information  he  gives  is  very  scanty.  It  is  from  the 
account  given  by  Julius  Csesar  (55-54  b.c),  together  with  what 
we  can  learn  from  archaeology,  that  we  are  able  to  construct  our 
first  satisfactory  picture  of  conditions  in  Britain. 

In  this  picture  we  see  Wales  held  by  a  race  of  mixed  Iver- 
nian  and  Gaelic  (the  Silures) ;  Cumberland  and  Scotland  held 
15.  Pre-Ro-  by  Gaelic  tribes  known  to  Eoman  historians  as  the  Picts  ; 
mancivili-     ^^^^  Ireland  held  by  other  Gaelic  tribes  known  as  the 
zation  in  ,  ,  -i,       i     n      i      i       • 

Britain  KScots.     The  Gael  were  probably  still  wholly  barbaric. 

There  were  no  walled  cities  in  northern  Britain,  and,  indeed,  no 
towns  worthy  of  the  name.  The  hardy  Picts  dwelt  in  tent- 
like structures,  wore  little  or  no  clothing,  and  relied  for  food 
on  hunting,  foraging,  and  fishing.  For  fishing  they  used  boats 
made  of  wickerwork  covered  with  stretched  skins.  In  war 
time  — that  is,  practically  all  the  time— they  stained  their 
bodies  with  vegetable  dyes  to  make  themselves  look  fierce. 

The  Britons  of  the  south  were  more  civilized,  because  of 
their  trade  with  the  Continent.  They  had  few  large  settle- 
ments, but  the  inhabitants  of  each  region  had  "  a  tract  of  woody 
country  surrounded  by  a  wall  or  high  bank  and  a  ditch,"  into 
which  they  could  retreat  with  all  their  possessions  in  time  of 
war.  At  other  times  they  lived  in  scattered  cone-shaped  huts 
made  of  poles  interwoven  with  twigs.  They  wore  clothes  made 
of  skins,  and  cultivated  grain  for  food.  They  were  organized 
into  tribes  governed  by  kings,  and  often  several  tribes  were 
banded  into  a  strong  confederation.  The  kings  were  rather 
fighting  leaders  than  administrators,  and  many  of  the  functions 
of  government  (including  the  punishment  of  crime)  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  Druids,  or  priests,  — for  the  Druidic  system 


KAKMKST    INUAIJITANTS    i)V    HKIIAIN  li-"? 

of  religion  was  even  more  highly  devi-loped  here  than  on  the  C\)n- 
tinent.  Its  center  wa^  tlie  "Holy  Island"'  of  Mona  (Anglesey), 
where  the  Druids  taught  worship  of  nature,  of  running  streams, 
of  trees,  of  aninuils,  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Surface  mining  and 
commerce  were  widely  carried  on.  Kough  coins  imitating  those 
imported  from  Brittany  were  manufactured  by  the  natives,  both 
for  the  purposes  of  trade  and  to  be  worn  as  ornaments;  but 
most  of  the  money  in  circulation  was  of  foreign  make.  Britain 
exported  silver,  iron,  tin,  grain,  cattle,  skins,  dog.s,  and  slaves; 
and  imported  metal  wares,  articles  of  glass,  of  pottery,  of  cloth, 
and  that  indispensable  ingredient  of  food,  salt. 


The  student  has  now  examined   the  pre-Roman  period  of 
English  history,  and  has  hastily  surveyed  the  later  develop- 
ments of  which  it   was   the  basis.      Scientific  evidence      le    sum- 
shows  that  the  island  was  inhabited  in  very  early  times,  mary 

even  before  metal  tools  were  invented.  I^efore  the  advent  of  the 
Romans,  Britain  was  invaded  b}'  at  least  four  races  in  turn, — 
tlie  Ivernians,  the  Gael,  the  Britons,  and  the  Belgic  Celts, — 
each  of  whicli  was  seeking  relief,  by  migration  westward,  from 
the  pressure  of  its  more  powerful  successor.  At  first  civiliza- 
tion was  of  necessity  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  southern 
districts,  where  farming  and  grazing  were  the  chief  means  of 
livelilioo<l.  Those  early  inhabitants  gradually  developed  simple 
tribal  institutions,  a  system  of  religions  worship,  and  the  be- 
ginnings of  mining  and  commerce.  Also,  the  student  has 
noted  how  the  .salubrious  climate  of  Britain,  its  fertile  soil, 
abundant  mineral  wealth,  and  opportunities  for  .securing  n.c- 
chanical  jxnver  were  fitted  to  afford  its  citizens  every  possible 
atlvantage  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

TOPICS 
(1)   .Make  a  list  of  tlip  elciiient.s  wliicli  ro  to  make  up  rivilizatioii.    SurircBtive 
a.s  they  appear  in  thi.s  chapter.     (2)    Which  of  tlte.se  are  es.seiitial    ^P^^* 


24       COURSE   AND   CONDITIONS   OF  ENGLISH   HISTORY 


Search 
topics 


only  to  the  higher  forms  of  civilization  ?  (3)  What  improvements 
and  inventions  were  necessary  before  England  could  become  a 
commercial  nation  ?  A  nation  of  manufacturers  ?  (4)  Why  can 
not  Ireland  use  her  extensive  ore  deposits  as  advantageously  as 
England  ?  (5)  Why  is  England  subject  to  excessive  fogs  and  fre- 
quent brief  showers  ?  (6)  Do  the  tides  affect  her  shallow  seas 
much  or  little  ;  and  what  influence  do  they  have  on  commerce  ? 
(7)  What  counties  of  England  can  be  reached  by  way  of  the 
Thames  ?  of  the  Humber  ?  of  the  Severn  ?  (8)  What  effect  would 
the  invention  of  stone  weapons  have  on  the  food  supply  of  the 
paleolithic  men  ?  (9)  Why  was  Salisbury  Plain  the  logical  site 
for  the   religious    center   of   the    early    Britons    at   Stonehenge  ? 

(10)  Compare  the  civilization  of  the  Britons  in  the  time  of  Caesar 
with  that  of  the   American  Indians   in  the   time  of  Columbus. 

(11)  Where  is  the  language  of  the  Gael  still  to  be  heard  ? 
(12)  Stonehenge  and  Avebury.     (13)  The  contents  of  a  Celtic 

barrow.  (14)  The  origin  of  the  names  Britannia,  Albion,  Hibernia. 
(15)  The  relation  of  London  to  the  land  masses  of  the  earth  (use 
globe  and  compasses).  (16)  The  proportion  of  daylight  and  dark- 
ness in  the  British  Isles  in  midsummer.  Account  for  the  long  days, 
and  show  in  detail  their  influence  upon  the  lives  of  the  people. 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

Geography  See  maps,  pp.  14,  15,  384,  385  ;  Gardiner,  Scliool  Atlas  of  English 

History,  map  64;  Mackinder,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas,  chs. 
i.-xii.  ;  Hughes,  Geography  in  British  History,  chs.  i.  ii.*;  Black, 
Handy  Atlas,  maps  1-4  ;  Stanford,  Parliamentary  County  Atlas, 
maps  1-15  ;  Phillips,  County  Atlas,  passim  ;  Russell,  British  Seas 
(Illustrated). 

Gardiner,  Studeiit's  History,  1-10  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History, 
3-12  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England,  bk.  i.  ch.  i.  ;  Church,  ■ 
Early  Britain,  ch.  i.  ;  Freeman,  Old  English  History,  ch.  i.  ;  Ram- 
say, Foundations  of  England,  I.  chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Green,  Making  of 
England,  7-12  ;  Cunningham  and  McArthur,  Outlines  of  English 
Industrial  History,  ch.  ii.  ;  Evans,  Stone  Age  in  Britain,  —  Bronze 
Age  in  Britain  ;  Windle,  Bemains  of  the  Prehistoric  Age  in  Britain  ; 
Rhys,  Celtic  Britain,  chs.  i.  ii. ;  Wright,  The  Celt,  the  Soman, 
and  the  Saxon,  ch.  iii.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Edwards, 
Wales,  ch.  i.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  I.  1-5  ;  Traill,  Social 
England,  I.  Introd.  passim,  and  pp.  1-10,  30-36,  84-90,  106-114; 
Ripley,  Eaces  of  Europe,  ch.  xii. 

Source  Csesar,  Commentaries,  bk.  v.  chs.  xii.-xiv. 


CIT-VrTEU   IT. 
THE    ROMANS   IN   IJIUTAIN   (55  b.c.-440  a.p.) 

Thk  invasion  of   Britain  by  Julius   Csesar  was  a  natural 
result  of  the  Roman  practice  of  sending  ambitious  ex-officials 
of  the  Republic  into  hontnable  exile  as  governors  of  dis-      ^^   ^^^^^ 
taut  })rovinces.     Such  men  had  no  outlet  for  their  rest-      in  Britaiu 
less   energies  except  in  fighting;  and  it  was   thus   that 
Csesar  as  proconsul  in  Gaul  was  led  first  to  concpier  various 
Celtic  and  Teutonic  tribes,  and  then,  on  the  pretense  that  the 
Gallic  Celts  were  made  restless  by  their  kinsmen  in  Britain,  to 
attack  that  island. 

In  the  fall  of  o.")  b.c,  Ca-sar  crossed  the  Strait  of  Dover 
with  two  legions  —  about  seventy -five  hundred  men — to  "  spy 
out  the  land."  Spirited  resistance  from  the  natives,  and  the 
wreck  of  several  of  his  ships  on  the  exposed  shore,  showed 
him  that  his  force  was  too  small  for  success,  and  he  wisely 
hurried  back  to  the  Continent.  The  next  year  (54  b.c.)  he 
returned  with  ten  legions  of  soldiers,  a  body  of  cavalry,  and 
numerous  war  galleys.  Advancing  westward  through  Kent,  and 
crossing  the  Thames  (probably  about  twenty  miles  above 
London),  he  pushed  northward  as  far  as  the  present  St.  Albans, 
hoping  to  strike  terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  native  princes 
and  make  them  tributaries  of  the  Roman  state.  His  plans, 
however,  were  interrupted  by  news  of  trouble  in  Gaul,  and  of 
political  changes  at  Rome.  After  a  campaign  of  two  months 
he  withdrew  his  forces  to  the  Continent,  wIumc  he  soon  forgot 
Britain  in  more  exciting  contests  with  the  CJermanic  trilxjs 
and  with  his  i>olitical  enemies  at  home. 

25 


ROMAN  BRITAIN 

SHOWING  CHIEF  KOMAK  ROAUS 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
20  4U  00  SO  lUO 


NORTH 


THK    KOMANS    IN    HKIIAIN  L'T 

rmU-r  tlic  early  lloman  Emperors,  there  were  tliree  notable 
attempts  at  eoiupiest  in  Uritain. 

(1)  An  expedition  was  sent  out  l»y  Claudius  in  4.'^  a.d.,  con- 
sisting of  about  tifty  tlio\i.sand  men  under  the  command  of 
an  able  general,  Aulus  I'lautius.     Advancing  from   the         jg    qq^^. 

southeast  and  south,  Plautius  made  himself  master  of   ^^^^^  of  ^^^ 

south  under 
almost  the  entire  basin  of  the  Thames,  and  of  the  land        ciaudms 

westward  to  the  mouth  of  the  Severn.  Later  generals  1*3-50 AD.) 
})ushed  the  frontier  northward  and  w^estward,  so  that  l>y  the 
nnddle  of  the  century  the  Romans  controlled  the  country  as 
far  as  the  mouths  of  the  Humber  and  the  Dee,  and  had  planted 
important  fortresses  or  colonies  at  Deva  (also  called  Castra 
—  whence  the  modern  name  of  Chester),  Lindum  (Lincoln), 
and  Camulodunum  (Colchester).  In  the  year  61  the  Roman 
governor  Suetonius  Paulinus  made  a  cruel  and  successful  attack 
on  ^lona,  the  holy  island  of  the  Druids.  Meanwhile  the  east 
was  goaded  to  revolt  by  the  tyranny  of  the  Romans  :  a  war- 
rior queen,  lioadicea,  was  pidilicly  flogged  like  a  mere  slave 
for  resisting  a  tax  collector.  At  her  call  the  Britons  rose  by 
thousands  (i'A  a.u.),  and  nearly  succeeded  in  recovering  con- 
trol of  the  land  north  of  the  Thames.  Camulodunum  was 
stormed,  and  it  is  said  that  seventy  thousand  Romans  were 
massacred. 

'•  Kail  llu-  liui.l  witli  Koinan  slaimhter,  uiultitudinou.s  agonies ; 
IVrislied  many  a  >nai<l  an<l  matron,  many  a  valorous  lef^innar}"  ;  Bmu'lirea, 

Fell  the  colony,  city,  and  citadel,  London,  Verulam,  Camulo-       line-i  S^-S6 
iluni'." 

Suetonius  bravely  hiirled  his  scanty  forces  acro.ss  Britain 
into  the  very  heart  of  the  rebellion.  Roman  i)romptness,  skill, 
and  courage  proved  their  superiority  over  barbaric  niimlwrs 
ami  valor;  in  the  decisive  battle  the  Britons  were  slain  by 
thousands,  and  the  revolt  collapsed. 

(2)  In  78  A.O.,  a  fresh  advance  was  begun  by  order  of  the 
Emperor  Vespasian.     During  the  next  decade  the  Roman  gen- 


28 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


eral  Agrieola  extended  the  Koman  dominion  on  the  east  of 
the  Pennine  Chain  far  beyond  the  Humber,  and  attempted, 

19.  Con-        by  building  a  line  of  forts,  to  hold  the  territory  as  far 

quest  of  the         ^|_^g  Qi    T^^     ^^^^  ^^-^Q^  ^l^g  Emperor  Hadrian  visited 

north     (76-  j        '  j- 

208  A.D.)       Britain  in  121  a.d.,  he  fixed  upon  the  Solway-Tyne  line 

as  a  defensible  frontier,  and  caused  a  strong  wall  to  be  con- 
structed there  entirely  across  the  island,  strengthened  with 
redoubts  and  flanked  by  a  military  road.  IFa^ton,  Thivhvall, 
Heddon  on   the    Wall,   Rntchester,   Chesters,   Chester  Holm  — 


Hadrian's  Wall. 

•what  a  story  do  these  names  of  localities  between  Newcastle 
and  Carlisle  tell  of  the  long  history  of  this  Roman  Wall ! 

(3)  About  a  century  after  Hadrian,  the  Emperor  Severns 
undertook  the  conquest  of  the  Pictish  tribes  of  the  far  north. 
Borne  by  armies  which  displayed  most  extraordinary  courage 
and  endurance,  the  standard  of  Rome  was  planted  on  the  ex- 
treme northern  limit  of  the  island,  though  at  a  cost  of  fifty 
thousand  men  and  with  no  permanent  advantage.  No  attempt 
■was  made  to  retain  the  district  beyond  the  Clyde,  and  even 
the  region  betAveen  the  Clyde  and  Hadrian's  Wall  proved  not 
■worth  the  winning. 


TllK    ROMANS    IN    niniAlN 


29 


Hai>kia.\'s  Wall  .nlau  L'AHKAUiiui;uLuu. 

Indeed,  the  Romans  had  firm  control  of  but  little  territory 
outside  of  the  great  pentagon  marked  out  by  the  cities  of 
Eborarum  (York),  Dover,  I'orchester,  Caerleon,  and  Ches-  20.  Soman 
ter.  From  tlie  beginning  the  administration  was,  of  '  castra" 
course,  largely  military.  Frontier  fortresses  were  built  com- 
manding the  passes  from  the  Severn  valley  eastward.  Forti- 
fied camps,  or  aistra,  were  placed  at  the  intersections  of  all 
the  important  roads,  and  th<'  part  wliich  they  i)layed  in  the 
Romanizing  of  Britain  may  be  inferred  from  tlu-  number  of 
British  cities  which  totlay  cany  in  their  names  the  old  Roman 
castni  —  as  Leicester,  Dorchester,  >ranchester,  Winchester. 
There  were  fifty  wallfd  towns,  the  ground  plan  of  each  of 
which  was  based  on  that  of  a  Roman  camp— the  city  being 


30  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

bounded  by  a  square  valhim,  or  rampart,  while  witliiu  were  rows 
of  wooden  houses  with  thatched  roofs  arranged  in  rectangles 
like  the  barracks  of  the  legionary  soldiers. 

From  town  to  town  ran  the  Roman  military  roads,  following 
direct  lines,  in  strong  contrast  to  the  winding  roads  of  pre- 

21  Roman  Eon^an  Britain.  Other  roads  connected  the  various  mili- 
roads  ^a^.y   centers   with   the   mining   and   industrial   regions. 

Many  roads  were  built  to  endure  for  centuries ;  the  foundations 
were  of  large  stones  laid  in  mortar  on  beaten  earth,  and  over 
this  in  successive  strata  were  placed  smaller  stones,  gravel, 
sand,  clay,  and  a  surface  dressing.  In  laying  out  these  roads  the 
Eomans  spared  no  toil,  hewing  their  way  through  vast  forests, 
building  protecting  dikes  in  the  fens  of  Lincolnshire,  draining 
the  marshes  and  swamps  of  Somersetshire,  or  building  cause- 
ways across  them  on  driven  pile  foundations,  bridging  streams  as 
large  as  the  Tyne,  and  constructing  sewers  and  aqueducts  along 
the  roads  in  the  cities  through  which  they  ran.  Of  all  these 
roads,  the  most  important  were  the  Watling  Street  (London 
to  Chester)  and  the  Fosse  AVay  (Exeter  to  Lincoln),  which 
formed  upon  the  breast  of  the  island  a  huge  St.  Andrew's 
cross  with, its  intersection  near  Leicester,  and  made  commu- 
nication easy  between  the  extremities  of  the  province. 

The   Roman    administration   of    Britain   was   very   costly. 
Military  expenses  were  enormous,  and  the  inhabitants  suffered 

22  Eco-  gi'eatly  from  the  Roman  policy  of  draining  the  resources 
nomic  con-  of  conquered  provinces  for  the  benefit  of  the  central 
under^he  government,  and  of  drafting  for  foreign  service  the 
Romans         sturdiest  of  the  Britons.     Grinding  taxes  were  laid  on 

land,  on  trade,  on  inhabitants :  a  poll  tax  was  laid  upon  arti- 
sans;  the  duties  on  imports  amounted  to  one  eighth  of  the 
value  of  the  goods;  a  portion  was  demanded  of  all  profits 
from  market  sales ;  large  levies  of  grain  were  made  upon  the 
landowners  as  supplies  for  the  trooi)S ;  rents  amounted  to  from 
one  tenth  to  one  fifth  of  the  profits  of  the  soil.    As  the  Roman 


THK    KOMANS    IN    HiniAlN 


31 


Vase  of  Castor  Wark. 


Empire  declined  in  powor  these  exactions  became  greater 
and  greater,  and  the  general  effect  of  the  Roman  policy  was 
to  destroy  such  capital  as  had  accumulated  and  to  check  in- 
dustry. 

Nevertheless,  the  Romans  hastened  the  progress  of  Britain 
from  barbarism  to  civilization.  Tlie  scanty  clearings  of  the 
natives  gave  way  to  large  and  well- 
tilled  farms.  One  year  (3o~  a.d.) 
eight  hundred  vessels  were  laden  with 
British  grain  for  the  Rhine  legions. 
Vast  herds  of  cattle  pastured  on  the 
open  slopes.  Iron,  tin,  copper,  and 
lead  mines  were  operated  for  the 
Ijenefit  of  Roman  lessees.  The  re- 
mains of  earthenware  vessels,  which 
aljound  for  a  space  of  twenty  miles 
around  the  village  of  Castor,  testify  to         g,_,,^^..,,^^  ^,^^,  ,,,„,^j,^^ 

the  activity  of  the   Romans   in   the     FuuikI  in  a  Koman  cfinetery 

.     ,     '        -        ,,  near  Caiiterliurv. 

manufacture  ot  pottery. 

These  renuiins  also  show  something  of  the  social    side  of 
Roman  life  in  Britain ;  for  depicted  on  the  pottery  we  fiml 
representations  of  boar  hunting  and  stag  hunting.     But      23   Social 
Roman  social  life  was  essentially  the  life  of  the  city,  not      "nder'the 
of  the  country.    The  walls  of  Uriconium  inclosed  a  space         Romans 
three   miles    iu    circuit.      ^^'hen    Diocletian    reorganized    the 
Empire  (L".>.*{  a.d.),  York,  a  stronghold  at  the  head  of  tide  water 
in  the  riv»>r  ( )use,  becanu^  tlie  seat  of  government  for  one  of 
the   joint    Eujperors    (A'Kjiisti),   and    therefore   an    imp«)rtant 
legislative  and  judicial  center.     Other  cities,  like  Londinium, 
Caerleon,  and  Camulodunum,  developed  into  commercial  cen- 
ters of  great  importance.     Coins  were  struck  at  first  to  com- 
memorate the   victories  of  the  earlier  Em])erors   in    liritain, 
and  later  to  promote  commerce.     Some  bear  the  mint  mark 
''  I'[ecunia]  Lon[diniensis]  ''  ("  money  of  London";  and  others 


32 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


the  proud  inscription  "Vict[oria]  Brit[annica]."  Temples 
were  built  to  Jupiter,  to  Mars,  and  to  the  "  Genius  of  Britain." 
Christian  churches,  too,  wei^e  built,  as  the  new  faith  spread 
through  the  Empire  under  the  tolerant  Constantino.  Baths 
with  tessellated  floors  and  frescoed  walls,  theaters  and  amphi- 


Roman  Theater  at  Verulamium,  exhumed  in  1847  and  1869. 
It  was  193  feet  in  diameter,  with  frescoed  plaster  walls. 

theaters,  tiled  roofs,  mosaic  pavements,  and  devices  for  heating 
houses,  all  testify  to  the  wealth  and  luxury  of  the  upper 
classes ;  and  schools  of  literature  and  of  oratory  show  that  the 
Eomans  in  their  new  abode  indulged  the  tastes  brought  from 
their  native  land. 

During  the  fourth  century  Eome's  power  was  steadily  de- 
clining, because  of  the  decay  of   good  government  at  home, 

,    and  the  enormous  strain  of  defending  the  frontiers.     In 
24.   End  of  .        .        ^  ,     .  ^, 

the  Eoman  Britain,  the  Picts  and  the  Scots,  issuing  from  their  north- 
control  g^.^^  ^^^^-j  ^yggtern  strongholds,  made  repeated  raids  upon 
the  outlying  Roman  fortresses;  and  from  the  remains  of 
burned  villas  we  may  conclude  that  the  Romans  had  contin- 
ually to  reconquer  the  island  from  its  original  owners.  To  a 
"Duke  of  the  Britains"  (Dux  Britanniarum)  was  intrusted  the 
defense  of  the  Wall,  and  to  a  "  Count  of  Britain  "  the  supervi- 
sion of  administration.     Meanwhile,  in  the  year  364,  the  first 


TMK    Ut  (MAN'S    IN    HKIlAlN  33 

Saxon  band  of  raiders  appeared  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Britain, 
and  soon  a  "  Count  of  the  Saxon  Coast "  (Comes  Litun's  Snx- 
onici)  had  to  be  appointed. 

Two  causes  finally  compelled  the  Konians  to  abandon 
Britain:  (1)  mutinies  among  the  troops  in  (Jaul,  and  (2)  the 
invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Visigoths  under  Alaric.  In  383  the 
general  Maximus,  ^vho  aspired  to  be  Emperor,  led  his  troops 
from  Britain  into  Gaul ;  in  402  the  Vandal  chief  Stilicho,  to 
■whom  the  Emperor  had  intrusted  the  defense  of  Italy,  with- 
drew a  legion  for  use  against  Alaric ;  in  409  a  second  usurper, 
Constantius,  led  the  Eoman  forces  remaining  in  Britain  across 
the  Channel  to  fight  his  battles  in  Gaul.  In  the  following 
year  came  the  closing  event  in  the  drama.  An  appeal  of  the 
Roman  officials  in  Britain  for  aid  against  the  barbarians  was 
refused  by  the  Emi)eror  Honorius,  and  the  island  was  aban- 
doned to  its  fate  (410). 

The  Roman  officials  continued  to  exert  a  shadowy  control 
for  a  time,  but  no  strong  government  existed.  The  assaults  of 
barbaric  Bicts  and  Scots  were  no  longer  repelled,  since  25.  Fate  of 
the  Duke  of  the  Britains  was  helpless  without  the  the  Britons 
Roman  garrisons ;  many  of  the  Roman  colonists  deserted  the 
island ;  and  the  natives  had  lost  their  power  of  resistance  to 
the  savages  through  their  long  subjection  to  Rome's  iron  rule. 
"At  last  the  Britons,  forsaking  their  cities  and  wall,  took  to 
flight  and  were  dispersed.     Thus,  being   expelled   their  lipde, 

dwellings  and  possessions,  they  saved  themselves  from  cdl/isiory, 
starvation  by  robbing  and  plundering  one  another,  adding  bk.  i.  ch.  is 
to  the  calamities  occasioned  by  foreigners,  by  their  own  domes- 
tic broils,  till  the  whole  country  was  left  destitute  of  food 
except  such  as  could  be  procured  in  the  chase."  A  doubtful 
legend  tells  how  Vortigern,  the  ruler  of  Kent,  in  the  year  449 
invited  Hengist  and  Ilorsa,  leaders  of  certain  Teutonic  tribes, 
to  aid  him  against  the  Bicts  and  the  Scots.  Whether  this  1)0 
true  or  not,  the  invasion  (»f  Kent  by  the  Jutes,  under  their 


34 


CONQUESTS  OF   ENGLAND 


leadership,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  marks  the 
beginuing  of  a  new  period  in  British  history. 


It  was  five  hundred  years   after  Caesar's  landing  at  Dover, 
before  the  first  permanent  band  of  Teutonic  invaders  landed  at 
26.  Sum-       the  mouth  of  the  Thames.     During  those  five  centuries 
°^^^y  barbarism  gave  way  to  civilization  in  southeastern  Brit- 

ain; but  the  new  masters  of  the  soil  remained  an  alien 
class,  which  lived  chiefly  in  walled  towns 
and  maintained  its  power  only  by  an 
overwhelming  display  of  military  force, 
recruited  largely  from  the  Continent. 

Thus,  made   secure,   the   conquerors 
transformed  the  entire  face  of  the  coun- 
try through  their  genius  for  engineering 
and    industry.      Their    roads,    camps, 
dikes,  ramparts,  and   ports  influenced 
the   development   of    Britain   in   after 
years,    and    their    zealous    search    for 
mineral    and    agricultural    wealth    dis- 
closed many  of  the  treasures  of  the  soil. 
But  their  activity  was  wholly  selfish, 
and    w^hen    their    overgrown    political 
structure  at  last  toppled  from  its  own 
weight,  Britain  was  one  of  the  earliest 
portions  of  the  empire  to  fall  away  from  the  mass.     Mean- 
while the  native  inhabitants  had  become  unfitted  by  slavery 
to  perpetuate  the  civilization  bequeathed  to  them,  and  Britain 
was  now  to  become  the  prize  of  the  freedom-loving  Teutonic 


Roman  Grave  Slab. 
Fouud  at  York. 


peoples. 


TOPICS 


Suggestive 
topics 


(1)  Why  did  Rome  eagerly  seek  to  conquer  countries  rich  in 
mineral  and  agricultural  wealth  ?  Suggest  physical,  political, 
economic  reasons.      (2)  Why  did  Caesar  march  so  far  westward 


TIIK    Kn.MANS    IN    IIUHAIN 


35 


bf  fore  crossing  the  Tlianies  '?  (:J)  Do  yf)ii  fonsiiier  C'a-sar's  second 
campaign  in  Britain  a  success?  (4)  Why  was  York,  rather  than 
Lonilon,  the  residence  of  one  of  the  Augusli  ?  (5)  Why  do  modem 
railroads  follow  the  lines  of  old  Honian  roads?  ((>)  Why  were 
the  Honian  roads  called  "highways"  by  their  Anglo-Saxon  suc- 
cessors? (7)  Explain  the  historical  bearing  of  the  title  Comes 
Lilnriii  Saj-imici.  (8)  Trace  the  route  of  the  earliest  Saxon 
pirau-s  fmni  their  homes  to  British  shores.  (0)  Why  were  the 
Romans  unwise  in  laying  duties  upon  imports  int<)  Britain? 
(10)  Trace  the  causes  of  the  downfall  of  Bouian  power  in  Britain. 
(11)  Ca-sar's  successes  in  (laul  and  his  failures  in  Britain. 
(12)  The  Teutonic  tribes  as  described  by  Ca-sar  and  Tacitus, 
(lo)  A  comparison  of  Ciesar's  method  of  warfare  with  that  of 
the  Britons.  (14)  The  wall  of  Hadrian  ;  its  location,  structure, 
defen.ses.  (15)  Roman  remains  in  some  British  towns.  (Ki)  A 
list  of  towns  named  from  rustrn  (-caster,  -Chester,  -cester)  in 
Britain;  in  New  England.  (17)  Why  was  the  Roman  iinperiid 
system  impracticable  on  so  large  a  .scale  ? 


Search 
topics 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  map,  p.  2fl  ;   Gardiner,   Srhool   Atlns,  map  1;   Mackinder.    Geographj 
liritnin   ninl    (fit'    British    Si-as,    1!»5-1!»7  ;    Hughes,    (ieoiiriiphij  in 
British  History,  ch.   iii.  ;   I'earson,  Ilistorinil   Maps  nf  Emjlaml, 
maj)  (J;  Toole,  Historical  Atlas,  map  xv.  ;  Reich,  ,Y('(/-  Students" 
Atlas,  map  2. 

(Jardiner.  Studint's  History,  l(i-27  ;  Ransome,  Adranred  His- 
tory, 1>-18  ;  Green,  Short  History,  5-7,  —  Makiinj  of  England.  1- 
25;  I'owell  and  Tout.  Kmjland,  bk.  i.  ch.  ii.  ;  Brewer,  StHdint\-i 
Hume,  bk.  i.  ch.  i.  ;  Lingard,  Enijland.  I.  ch.  i.  ;  Ramsay,  Fonn- 
dationsof  Enijland.  I.  chs.  iii.  iv.  ;  Church.  Early  Britain,  chs.  ii.- 
ix. ;  Freeman,  Old  Emjlish  History,  chs.  ii.  iii.  ;  C'onybeare.  Boman 
Britain  ;  Scarth.  Boman  Britain  ;  Wright,  C'filt,  Boman.  and 
Saxon  :  I't-arson.  Emjland  durimj  Middle  Afjen.  I.  ch.s.  ii.  iii.  ; 
Edwards.  Wahs.  ch.  ii.  ;  Lang,  Srotlnnd.  I.  0-18  ;  Tniill,  Sorial 
En>thind.  I.  10-2Jt,  54-'!4,  71-84.  Se.'  New  England  History 
Teaflien'  As.sociation.  History  Syllahus.  p.  223. 

Colby.  Silertinns  from  the  Soitrrfs,  nos.  1-.'? ;  Ca>sar,  C<'»/i- 
rnentarits,  l.k.  iv.  chs.  xx.-xxxvi.,  bk.  v.  cli«.  viii.-xxiii.  ;  Tacitus. 
Aijririda,  ilis.  x.-xxiv.  ;  Anijio-Saxon  ('hronirh  to  440  a.k. 

Church,  The  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shon- ;  Henty.  Ihrir  the  Ifriton  ; 
Shakespeare,  Cymlnline  ;  Tennyson.  Ilnadinii  :  B:it«s  and  Ci'inan. 
Enrjlish  History  tidd  by  Enylish  Poets,  l-t'>. 


Sources 


niustratlve 
works 


CHAPTER  III. 

CELTS   AGAINST   TEUTONS  (449-827) 

According  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  CJironide  (§  67)  the  first  per- 
manent Teutonic  settlers  on  British  soil  were  bands  of  Jutes 
g„   _^  who  landed  on  the  island  of  Thanet   in  the  year  449. 

Teutonic  From  that  time  onward,  numerous  swarms  of  Teutons 
from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  and  the  N9rth  Sea  crossed 
over  to  Britain  and  settled  there.  The  prime  reasons  for  these 
invasions  must  be  sought  in  the  westward  pressure  exerted 
by  the  various  migrating  races  in  the  north  of  Europe  and  in 
the  opportunities  for  easy  conquest  afforded  by  the  disorgan- 
ized and  dispirited  peoples  in  Britain.  For  four  centuries  the 
strong  arm  of  Rome  had  held  in  check  the  migratory  move- 
ment described  in  §  14,  the  Teutonic  Franks  being  stopped  at 
the  Rhine,  and  their  Saxon  kinsmen  being  forced  northward 
to  the  Baltic  coast.  Now  that  this  arm  was  paraly:^ed,  the 
westward  movement  was  renewed  with  added  strength. 

The  newcomers  possessed  certain  barbaric  virtues  in  a  high 

degree.     The  chief  of  these  was  valor,  a  quality  which  they 

28    Cha  ac    ^^^^^^^^^  equally  while   hunting  wolves,  wild  boars,  and 

terofthe       bears  in  the  German  forests,  Avhile  pursuing  the  walrus 

and  the  whale  upon  the  turbulent  northern  waters,  and 

while  carrying  on  wars  of  conquest.     Cowardice  they  jmnislied 

Sidonius        with  death.     "  When  you  see  their  rowers,"  writes  the 

Letter'to'an   ^^^^^°P  ^^  ^  Gallic  diocese,  "you  may  make  up  your  mind 

Officer  of  the   that  every  one  of  them  is  an  arch  pirate,  with  such  won- 

rieet  about     <^^6rful  unanimity  do  all  of  them  at  once  command,  obey, 

470  A.D.         teach,  and  learn  their  business  of  brigandage.     Your  foe 

is  of  all  foes  the  fiercest."     They  Avere  a  rough,  cruel,  hard- 

36 


CELTS    AGAINST   TEUTONS 


37 


fighting,  hard-drinking  race;  yet  thev  far  surpassed  the 
Romans  in  their  capacity  lor  developing  the  finer  human 
sentiments,  —  respect  for  womanhood,  appreciation  of  tlie 
sublime  and  the  beautiful  aspects  of  nature,  and  susceptibility 
to  tenderness  and  pathos.     Furthermore,  they  possessed  a  love 


sc»n  Of  MiLta 

5        ra;      sou       Sw 


(AUSTRIA^ 


Tin;  UiiK. I.SAL  Homes  ok  tiik  A.\c;lu-S.vxo.vs. 

of  country  life  which  led  them  to  leave  desolate  the  great  cities 
f(ninded  by  the  Romans,  and  settle  in  scattered  rural  commu- 
nities. It  is  these  rpialities  that  have  made  the  English  people 
peculiarly  a  race  of  li(»mf  makers,  while  at  the  same  time 
they  are  enterprising  and  aiulacious  in  seeking  fields  of  activ- 
ity in  lands  even  more  undeveloped  than  was  Hritain  at  the 
landing  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  II'J. 


38  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

The  invaders  were  an  imaginative  race,  but  their  supersti- 
tions were  not  degrading;   on  the  contrary,  their  belief  that 
the  operations  of  nature  were  due  to  divine  beings  was 
gion  of  the     distinctly  ennobling.     Thor,  their  god  of  the  elements, 
Teutons  jjj^^  ^j^^  Komau  Jupiter,  caused  the  thunder  and  light- 

ning of  the  summer  storms;  Frea,  their  deity  of  peace,  joy,  and 
fruitfulness,  caused  life  and  growth  in  plant  and  animal; 
Eastre,  their  goddess  of  the  dawn  and  of  the  spring,  caused 
the  revival  of  vegetation  after  its  apparent  destruction  in 
winter.  These  and  Woden,  god  of  war  and  boundaries,  and 
Tiu,  deity  of  the  sky,  have  left  their  names  embodied  in  our 
common  English  names,  Thursday,  Friday,  Easter,  Wednes- 
day, Tuesday,  The  Anglo-Saxons  had  also  numerous  minor 
gods,  which,  indeed,  were  the  chief  deities  of  the  common 
people.  To  their  imaginations,  the  malarial  swamps  were  the 
homes  of  huge  fen-monsters;  dwarfs  lurked  in  the  barrows; 
"  water-nixies  "  and  fairies  peopled  the  glens  and  pools ;  and 
"  weirds "  occupied  the  border  ground  between  the  super- 
natural and  the  human. 

Before  their  appearance  in  Britain,  the  Teiitons  had  already 

developed  a  crude  political  system.     In  any  tribe,  the  Jjody  of 

30.  Teu-        fighting  men,  including  youths  of  fifteen  years  and  up- 

tonic  tribal   ^y.^^^A   formed  a  ''  war  host "  which  was  led  by  a  military 
orgamza-  '  ■'  •' 

tion  chief  called  an  ealdorman.     The  tribe  had  also  a  politi- 

cal head,  or  king,  who  claimed  descent  from  Woden,  and  there- 
fore ruled  as  it  were  "by  divine  right,"  but  his  authority 
depended  also  upon  the  sanction  of  the  tribe.  There  were  at 
least  two  social  classes,  distinguished  by  accident  of  birth. 
The  eorJs  were  persons  of  noble  blood,  the  ceorls  were  simple 
freemen.  At  that  time  a  ceorl  could  not  become  an  eorl,  be- 
cause he  could  not  alter  his  ancestry,  but  he  might  become 
an  ealdorman  by  brilliant  achievements  in  war.  A  unique 
class,  distinguished  not  by  blood  but  by  profession,  were  the 
gesitJis  (companies).      These   were   men  who   attached  them- 


CELTS    AC.MNST    TKin'ONS 


:>".• 


selves  to  a  king  or  an  t'aldormau,  acted  as  his  iMHlyguard  and 
his  comrades,  and  —  since  tliey  made  HLjhtin^  their  .sole  occu- 
pation—  were  dependent  on  him  even  for  food  and  (dothes. 
On  this  latter  account,  lie  bfcanic  known  as  their  hUiford, 
or   \o\\\   (bread-i^iverj.      So  close  was  the  bond  between  lord 


ThK    "Loltl)"    AS   TMK    •'  HKKAD-iWVKK.  ' 

F'ritiii  an  Anjilo-Saxoii  niaiiiisiTi[)t. 

and  gpsith,  that  it  was  considered  a  dis^'race  if  the  latter  came 
away  alive  from  the  field  on  which  his  chief  had  fallen. 

The  nn»st  important  custom  jjrevailing  among  tlie  Teutons 
was  that  of  deciding  in  concert  all  matters  of  common  in-  31  xhe 
terest.  "  Alx)ut  minor  matters  the  chiefs  deliberate;  about 
the  mor.'  iini)ortant,  tlie  entire  tribe.  Tlu-ir  freedom 
causes  this  disadvantage,  that  they  do  not  meet  all  at  (»ne 
time,  or  as  they  are  bidilen.  but  two  or  three  «lays  are 
wasted  through  their  tardiness  in  assembling.     Wlien  the  mul- 


Teutonic 

moot  sys- 

t/em 

Tnrittia, 

GTUKinia, 

ix. 


TEUTONIC  BRITAIN 


40 


CELTS   A(;AINST   TKl'TONS 


n 


titude  see  fit  to  do  so,  they  seat  tliemselves  in  full  armor. 
Then  the  king  or  the  chief,  according  to  age,  birth,  .distinct ion 
in  war,  or  eloc^uence,  is  heard  —  more  because  lie  has  influence 
to  persuade  than  because  he  has  the  authority  to  connnand. 
If  his  sentiments  displease  them,  they  reject  them  by  mur- 
muring; if  they  are  satisfied,  they  brandish  their  s])ears." 
By  such  '"folk-moots"  as  these  were  developed  the  Teutonic 
spirit  of  freedom  and  of  loyalty  to  a  chosen  leader. 

Within  a  half  century  after  449,  three  bands  of   invaders 
became  masters  of  most  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Thames. 

(1)  The  first  band,  composed  of  Jutes,  with  great  diffi-  32.  Con- 
culty  forced  their  way  through  Kent  until  they  were  southern 
checked  by  the  Audredsweald,  an  impenetrable  forest  of  Britain 
oak  and  beech  exteudiug  along  the  present  Wealden  Heights. 

(2)  Soon  afterwards,  a  band  of  Saxons  landed  near  the  present 
Southampton  and  forced  its  way  eastward  toward  the  same 
barrier.  (.S)  Kear  the  end  of  the  century  another  band  of 
Saxons,  led  by  the  celebrated  Cerdic,  lauded  on  the  Solent, 
pushed  their  way  into  Wiltshire,  and  founded  the  kingdom 
of  Wes.sex.  There,  for  a  hundred  years,  their  energies  were 
occupied  with  the  fierce  effort  to  drive  back  the  Britons. 
The   British  fortress  of  Old   Sarum,  commanding  the  sacred 


>l  IK    <•!       1  II  1      «  Ml"     i-'  ii:  1     "'1      .-^  Mil    M. 

Fortified  area  was  'SI  acres,  girded  by  a  ditch  and  a  vallum  (rampart). 


42  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

Salisbury  Plain,  was  taken  by  these  West  Saxons  in  552.  On 
the  heights  of  Deorham,  overlooking  the  Severn  valley,  the 
allied  kings  of  the  Britons  made  their  final  but  fruitless  stand 
in  577.  Three  British  kings  were  killed,  the  allied  forces  were 
put  to  rout,  and  the  West  Saxons  gained  possession  of  Bristol, 
Bath,  Cirencester,  and  Gloucester,  thus  driving  the  Britons 
beyond  the  Severn. 

During  this  sixth  century,  the  Angles  (North-folk  and  South- 
folk)  were   taking  possession  of   Britain   between  the  Stour 
33    Teu-        ^^^^^  ^1^6  Humber.    Of  this  movement  we  have  no  records, 

tonic  settle-  'but  archaeological  remains  and  place  names  indicate  that 

ments  ,        .         ^  .  ,  , 

north  of  the  the    invaders    came   m    great    numbers   and   were   very 

Thames  widely  dispersed  over  the  district.      South  of  these,  a 

small   body  of   Saxons,  perhaps   attracted   by  the  wealth  of 

Colchester,  occupied   and  settled  what  is  now  the  county  of 

Essex. 

The  district  north  of  the  Humber,  called  Northumbria, 
evidently  fell  into  the  possession  of  two  bands  of  Angles. 
One  built  up  the  kingdom  of  Bernicia  in  the  Tweed  vallej^j 
the  other,  advancing  up  the  Yorkshire  Ouse,  took  possession 
of  the  magnificent  Roman  citadel  of  York,  and  made  it  the 
center  of  the  kingdom  of  Deira.  Meanwhile  numerous  jjio- 
neers  moved  up  the  Trent  to  its  head  waters,  —  thirty  tribes 
are  known  to  have  won  locations  in  mid-Britain,  —  and  south 
of  the  Peak  of  Derbyshire  they  later  fouuded  the  mid-Anglian 
kingdom  of  Mercia,  so  called  because  of  its  position  on  the 
"  march,"  or  boundary,  between  the  newcomers  and  the  main 
body  of  native  Britons  to  the  west. 

The   Britons,   whom   the    invaders   oddly   misnamed   "the 

Welsh  "  (foreigners),  still  held  the  western  half  of  the  island, 

„.    _  .,        south  of  the  Firth  of   Forth,  in  three  districts  called 
34.  Failure  ' 

to  conquer    West  Wales,  North  Wales,  and  Strathclyde.    The  strong- 

^  ®^  holds  of  Bristol  and  Chester  controlled  the  communication 

between  North  Wales  and  the  other  two  districts,  and  after  the 


CELTS   AliAIXST  TKUTONS  4:'> 

battle  of  Deorham  (577)  the  West  Welsh  were  isolated  from 
their  kinsmen.  Not  many  years  later,  forces  from  Northum- 
bria  captured  Chester,  thus  isolating  Strathclyde  and  nuiking 
forever  impossible  the  union  of  the  Britons  into  a  strung 
nation.  Each  of  the  three  groups,  however,  long  remained 
master  of  its  own  territory :  it  was  more  than  two  centuries 
before  Strathclyde  was  reduced  to  the  dimensions  sliown  on 
the  map  (p.  40),  and  before  West  Wales  was  conquered  by 
Wessex;  and  for  more  than  four  centuries  all  attempts  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons  to  conquer  North  Wales  ended  in  failure. 

Of  the  desperate  struggle  of  the  Britons  to  preserve  their 
national  existence  we  know  only  through  the  myths  and 
legends  of  the  Welsh  bards  and  myth-telling  historians.  The 
most  notable  of  these,  the  legends  of  the  Kound  Table,  deal 
especially  with  the  exjdoits  of  a  half-mythical  champion  of 
^^'elsh  liberties,  King  Arthur,  son  of  the  wholly  mythical 
Uther  Pendragon.  Arthur's  real  achievements  are  hopelessly 
buried  in  the  mass  of  fable  that  has  gathered  about  his  name. 
"  He  in  twelve  set  battles  discomfited  the  Saxons,"  says  Sir 
Richard  Baker's  Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  England,  "but  in 
one  most  memorable ;  in  which,  girding  himself  with  his 
sword  'Calibourn,'  he  flew  upon  his  enemies  and  with  his 
own  hand  slew  eight  hundred  of  them :  which  is  but  one  of 
his  own  wonderful  deeds." 

The  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  was  very  bloody  and  destructive. 
Flourishing  cities  like  Anderida  (I'evensey),  Verulamium,  and 
Chester  were  wholly  destroyed.     The  language  of  tlie   S5.  Destruc- 
Britons  —  except  a  few  homely  words  (such  as  "gown,"     of  the  con- 
"mop,"  "pitcher")  used  by  women  and  slaves  —  ceased  quest 

to  1)6  heard.  Roman  law  almost  disappeared.  Christianity 
persisted  only  among  the  unconquered  liritons  of  western 
Britain.  Elsewhere  tlie  natives  were  expelled,  annihilated,  or 
enslaved.  The  Picts,  whoso  raids  had  led  to  the  introduction 
of  the  Teutons  into   Britain,  could  make  no  effective  stand 


44 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


against  the  invaders,  and  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  centnry  were 
driven  beyond  the  Firth  of  Forth.  There  they  founded  a 
strong  kingdom,  but  soon  found  new  enemies  in  a  body  of  Scots 
from  Ireland,  who  founded 


■  /    /    VJj-i  'tii     \    My     ^'V^\-..t' 


\^^Ff\V-d^ 


a  rival  kingdom  just  north 

of  the  Firth  of  Clyde. 
The  description  of  the 

conquest    written    by   the 

Venerable  Bede  sets  forth 

graphically    its    character 
Bede,  and  effects.    "Public 

Eccle&msu-    ^^    ^^^    ^g    private 

cal  History,  *■ 

bk.  i.  ch.  15  structures,"  he  says, 
"  were  overturned ;  the 
priests  were  everywhere 
slain  before  the  altars ;  the 
prelates  and  the  people, 
without  any  respect  of  per- 
sons, were  destroyed  with 
iire  and  sword ;  nor  was 
there  any  to  bury  those  who  had  been  thus  cruelly  slaujghtered. 
Some  of  the  miserable  remainder,  being  taken  in  the  mountains, 
were  butchered  in  heaps.  Others,  spent  with  hunger,  came 
forth  and  submitted  themselves  to  the  enemy  for  food,  being 
destined  to  undergo  perpetual  servitude  if  they  were  not  killed 
even  upon  the  spot." 

While  Christianity  was  thus  being  destroyed  in  southeastern 

Britain,  there  was  growing  up  in  the  north  an  imported  Celtic 

36.  The         branch  of  the  Christian   Church.     About  the  year  432, 

Church  in       Saint  Patrick,  then  a  monk  of  Tours  in  France,  was  sent 

the  north       by  Pope  Celestine  to  Ireland  as  a  missionary.    He  is  said 

to  have  consecrated  four  hundred  and  fifty  missionary  bishops, 

to  have  caused  the  erection  of  three  hundred  and  sixty-five 

churches,  to  have  spread  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  and 


North  Britain,  600-900  a.d. 


CELTS    AGAINSr    TKIIDNS  45 

to  have  founded  numerous  schools.  Irish  Christianity,  tluis 
created,  always  preserved  an  essentially  missionary  type,  and 
early  set  itself  the  task  of  converting  the  Picts  and  Scots  of 
northwestern  Britain.  One  of  the  Irish  njissionaries,  called 
Saint  Coliunba,  founded  a  famous  monastery  at  lona,  an  island 
otf  the  west  coast  of  ScotUmd  (r^Io),  and  the  next  half  cen- 
tury was  devoted  by  Irish  and  Scottish  missionaries  to  building 
up  the  Christian  Church  in  north  Britain. 

Almost  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  the  Latin  or  jjarent 
Church  gained  a  new  foothold  in  the  south.     In  the  year  597, 
a  monk   named  Augustine  was  commissioned   by   Pope         37.  The 
Gregory  I.   to   attempt   the   conversion   of    the   Anglo-       _,    ^^^.°- 
Saxons.     At  this  time  Kiug  Ethelbert  of  Kent  had  mar-       the  south 
ried  a  Frankish  princess,  Bertha,  who  was  a  Christian;  and 
therefore  when  Augustine  with  forty 
assistants  landed  in  the  islaiul  of 
Thanet,  he  was  permitted  to  preach 
and  conduct  services  in  Canterbury. 

It  is  hard  to  imagine  a  more  im- 
pressive sight  than   this  group  of 
devoted   Christians,  marching  into 
the  future  capital  of  British  Christ- 
endom, with  upraised  crucifi.x,  chant-      ^i^Si^:^- — 
ing   in    solemn   litany  the   phrases      g^^^,^.  p^^.^_  cxtkk.uky. 
■which  mark  the  "world-wide  differ- 
ence between  the  barbaric   and   the    Christian   conce])tion  of 
life:  "  We  beseech  Thee,  0  Lord,  in  all  Thy  mercy,  that  liede, 

Thv  anger  and  wrath  be  turned  away  from  this  eitv,  •'■''''""•"•  »- 
and  from  all  Thy  Holy  House,  because  we  have  sinned."  hk.i.ch.25. 
To  the  barbarians  of  Kent,  the  scene,  made  gorgeous  Avith  all 
the  Boiuan  civil  and  ecclesiastical  symlxjlism,  must  have  been 
deeply  impressive.  The  conversion  of  King  Ethelbert  soon 
took  place,  and  the  first  English  archbishopric  was  estal> 
lished  at  Canterbury.      Within  a  few  years  njissionaries  had 


46  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

converted  all  southwestern  Britain  to  the  new  faith.  The 
Welsh  bishops,  however,  rejected  the  attempts  of  Augustine  to 
bring  them  under  the  authority  of  Canterbury. 


Church  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  Glastonbury. 

Reputed  to  be  on  a  site  consecrated  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  guardian  of  the 

Holy  Grail. 

Throughout  the  entire  century  and  a  half  of  migration  and 

conquest,  the  various  tribes  were  gradually  working  out  a  new 

88   Con-        political  system  based  on  Teutonic  ideas.     At  first,  many 

structive       ealdormen    became   kings,   having   earned   their  higher 

6ff6CtS  * 

of  the  title  by  skillful  leadership,  bravery  in  battle,  and  organ- 

conquest  izing  ability.  In  their  various  kingdoms,  the  ancient 
folkmoots  and  the  council  of  chiefs  took  on  a  definite  form  of 
procedure,  and  a  rude  system  of  laws  grew  up.  Later  these 
petty  kingdoms,  after  much  warfare  among  themselves,  became 
united  under  overlords,  who  frequently  assumed  the  old  Roman 
title  of  Dux  Britanniarum  (Duke  of  the  Britains)  or  its  Saxon 
equivalent,  "  Bretwalda."  Thus  went  on  an  evolutionary  pro- 
cess tending  to  secure  the  "survival  of  the  fittest"  among  the 
warring  states. 


CELTS   AGAINST   TKl'IOXS  47 

B}-  the  year  GOO  this  process  had  resulted  in  raising  s«'ven 
states  —  the  so-called  Saxon  Heptarchy  —  into  a  position 
of  importance.  Four  of  these  —  Kent,  Sussex,  Essex,  and 
East  Anglia — were  cramped  within  rigid  natural  boundaries; 
the  other  three  —  Xorthumbria  (formed  by  the  union  of 
Bernicia  and  Deira),  Mercia,  and  Wessex  —  were  free  to 
expand,  and  it  was  therefore  natural  that  these  states  should 
absorb  those  less  favorably  situated,  and  should  then  ti;-,dit 
with  one  another  for  supremacy. 

The    first  accretion   was    about    Northumbria,    whose    king 

?Mwin    (617-633)  drove  back  the  Picts  as  far  as  Edinburgh 

(Edwin's  fortress),  wrested    territory    from   the    Welsh.        39    p^^. 

forced  his  overlordship  upon  Wessex,   and   formed   an     dominance 

.  .  ,     ,..         T^  ,    1  of  Nor- 

alliance   with  Kent.      His  marriage  with   King   Ethel-       thumbria 

bert's  daughter  led  to  his   acceptance   of  Christianity,      (617-633) 

and  his   conversion   involved   the   conversion   of   the   nation. 

The  heathen  high  priest,  Coifi,  mounted  a  horse,  rode  to  the 

pagan  temple,  hurled  his  spear  into  its  sacred  precints,  Bede, 

and  ordered  it  to  be  burned  to  the  ground.    Northumbria    ^^J/J*^/^); 

was   rapidly    Christianized,   and    an   archbishopric   was  bk.  a.  ch.  13 

established  at  York. 

Edwin,  now  at  the  height  of  his  power,  affected  great  state. 
He  assumed  the  title  of  Bretwalda  because  of  his  Welsh  con- 
quests, carried  a  spear  adorned  with  a  tuft  of  feathers  as  a  sort 
of  scepter,  and  caused  a  standard  always  to  be  borne  before 
him.  His  pride,  however,  went  before  a  fall;  for  by  his  con- 
quests he  had  created  an  enemy  in  Cadwallon,  the  most  i)0wer- 
fiil  of  tlu-  Wrlsh  clii.-fs.  and  aiiotlier  in  Penda,  king  of  Mercia. 

The  struggle  with  these  enemies  was  in  es.sence  a  con-   ^^   wars  of 
test  between  i)aganism  and  Christianity.     "Penda  was    Mercia  and 

,  '      r  /.I    •  *.      I     f        Northum- 

an  idolater,  and  a  stranger  to  tin-  name  ot  (  lirist;    out  ^^^ 

Cadwallon,  though  he  liore  the  name  and  ])rofessed  hi  in-  ^e'*''. 

self  a  Christian,  was  so  barbarous  in  his  disi)osition  aiul    ^^.^  nuinry, 
behavior  that  he  spaied  neither  the  female  sex  nor  the  bk.  a.  ch.  20 


48  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

innocent  age  of  children,  but  with  savage  cruelty  put  thein 
to  tormenting  deaths,  ravaging  all  the  country  for  a  long  time, 
and  resolving  to  cut  off  all  the  race  of  the  English  within  the 
borders  of  Britain."  For  thirty  years  Penda  strove  to  conquer 
Korthunibria.  King  Edwin  was  slain  at  Heathfield  (633), 
and  his  successor  Oswald  at  Masertield  (642);  the  missionaries 
from  the  south  fled  back  to  Kent,  but  others  from  Columba's 
monastery  at  lona  (§  36)  took  their  places  and  kept  alive 
the  flame  of  Christianity,  while  Deira  was  devastated  by  the 
barbarians.  Bernicia,  although  harried  by  raids,  clung  to  its 
independence;  and  finally,  in  the  battle  of  Winwaedsfield, 
near  the  present  Leeds  (655),  King  Oswy  annihilated  a  Mer- 
cian force  three  times  his  own  in  numbers.  The  north  was 
saved  to  Christianity,  and  Northumbria  was  again  supreme. 

In  the  year  652  Wilfrid  of  Lindisfarne,  a  monk  trained  in 
the  school  of  Columba,  traveled  to  Rome,  and  after  six  years 

.,     „,  returned  to  Northumbria  filled  with  enthusiasm  over  the 

41.    The 

conflict  of  idea  of  more  perfect  uniformity  of  discipline  between 
c  urc  es  Rome  and  the  church  in  other  countries :  and  his  return 
precipitated  the  question  whether  the  clergy  of  the  Celtic 
Church  should  consent  to  become  absorbed  into  the  eJ.aborate 
and  complex  system  centering  in  Rome ;  and  whether,  if  they 
should  prefer  not  to  do  this,  their  rites  and  the  ordinations 
performed  by  their  bishops  would  be  technically  valid. 

The  clergy  were  also  in  doubt  whether  certain  of  their  prac- 
tices were  orthodox.  There  was  disagreement  as  to  the  correct 
method  of  shaping  the  priestly  tonsure  —  a  matter  of  no  small 
importance,  because  the  tonsure  was  held  to  be  an  inheritance 
from  apostolic  times,  and  its  shape  was  thought  to  be  sym- 
bolic. And  again,  there  was  disagreement  as  to  the  correct 
method  of  computing  the  date  for  Easter.  The  Celtic  Church 
was  using  the  traditional  formula  which  it  had  received 
from  the  earlier  missionaries ;  the  Latin  Church  was  using 
a  later  formula  based  on  more  thorough  astronomical  knowl- 


c'Ki-rs  AiiAiNsr  ti;l'T(»ns 


41) 


edge,  preserved  aiul  registered  in  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Nice. 

To  settle  the  question  of  orthodoxy,  King  Oswy,  the  victor 
of  Wiuwaedstield,  called  a  grand  synod  at  Whitby  in  the  year 
664.    Bishop  Colman,  from  Columba's  monastery  at  lona, 
was  spokesman  for  the  Celtic  branch ;  Wilfrid  champi-  of  the  Latin 
oned  the  Koman  claims.     Oswy  and  his  Witan  (councilors 
or  wise  men)  are  said  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  fear  that 


Church 


k 


*<i 


Abbey  ok  Whitby. 

shoidd  they  decide  against  Rome,  which  traced  its  claims  to 
Saint  Teter.  the  latter,  holding  the  keys  of  heaven,  would  iit<ie, 

not  admit  them  when  they  claimed  entrance  there  after    f.',ffi]ll^oru 
death.     Whatever  tlicir  motive,  the  decision  was  given   bk.  H.  ch.  25 
for  the  Roman  Church.     Colman,  with  all  his  Irish  and  thirty 
of    his    English    followers,   departed    for    Ireland,    and    the 
English  Church  fell  wholly  under  the  control  of  Rome. 

The  significance  and  importance  of  tins  event  can  hardly  be 
exaggerated.  Adherence  to  the  Latin  branch  of  the  cliurch 
meant   union    with  civilized  Europe,  the  development  of  the 


50 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


43.  Pre- 
dominance 
of  Mercia 
under  Offa 
(758-796) 


literature,  the  arts,  and  the  systems  of  law  prevalent  on  the 
Continent;  a  victory  for  the  Celtic  Church  would  have  acted 
like  another  barbaric  invasion  to  delay  the  progress  of  civili- 
zation in  the  island.  Four  years  after  Whitby,  Theodore  of 
Tarsus  was  deputed  by  the  Pope  to  organize  the  Church  of 
England  in  harmony  with  that  of  Rome,  and  the  country  was 
divided  into  dioceses  and  parishes  of  the  type  described  in 
§§  108,  109.  The  Roman  authorities  wisely  avoided  a  conflict 
with  local  prejudices :  Englishmen  were  made  bishops  and 
archbishops ;  the  administrative  divisions  of  the  church  were 
made  to  follow  the  lines  of  the  English  shires ;  and  the  entire 
organization  was  adapted  to  the  conditions  already  existing. 

Mercia  quickly  recovered  from  the  disaster  of  Winwaeds- 
field.  Under  Fenda's  son  she  first  revolted  from  Northumbria, 
and  then  extended  her  power  to  the  south  and  west,  while 
ISTorthumbria's  short-lived  glory  ended  when  her  king 
Egfrith  was  defeated  by  the  Ficts  and  Scots  at  Kectans- 
mere  (685).  The  most  glorious  period  in  Mercian  history 
was  that  covered  by  the  reign  of  King  Offa,  from  758  to  796.    By 

his  victories  over  the  Welsh 
beyond  the  Seve^n,^  and 
later  by  the  conquest  of 
Essex,  Kent,  and  Wessex 
north  of  the  Thames,  he 
extended  his  sway  over  ter- 
ritory occupied  by  twenty- 
three  modern  English 
(The  moneyer's  name.)    ^Q.^j^ties.        To     hold     the 

Welsh  in  check  he  caused  the  erection  of  the  so-called  Offa's 

Dike,  a  defensive  rampart  or  earthwork  extending  from  near 

the  mouth  of  the  Dee  southward  for  a  distance  of  nearly  eighty 

miles,  to  the  river  Wye. 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  while  GiTa  was  subduing  the  British  peoples 
west  of  the  Severn,  Charlemagne  was  engaged  in  conquering  their  kinsmen 
in  Brittany. 


Silver  Penny  of 
"Offa  Rex." 
(Offa,  king.) 


)ffa,  757  A.D. 
"Ethelnoth." 


CELTS  AGAINsr  TKUTOXS  51 

But  conquest  formed  only  a  small  part  of  Offa's  achieve- 
ments. Ambitious,  intelligent,  statesmanlike,  he  did  more  than 
any  previous  monarch  to  create  a  unified  British  kingdom.  He 
partly  codified  the  laws,  and  enforced  order  among  both  Eng- 
lish and  A\'elsh  ;  he  aided  the  growth  of  commerce  by  improv- 
ing the  coinage  ;  and  by  closing  the  port  of  London  to  Frank ish 
vessels,  he  forced  the  mighty  Charlemagne  (then  master  of 
western  Europe)  to  grant  satisfactory  trade  privileges  to  Eng- 
lish merchants.  Indeed,  it  was  his  perception  of  the  impor- 
tance of  commerce  that  had  led  him  to  undertake  the  conquest 
of  the  states  which  controlled  the  Thames,  the  Severn,  and  the 
Solent.  But  the  composite  state  thus  created  quickly  fell 
apart  when  Offa's  strong  hand  Avas  removed. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  there  was  residing  at 
the  court  of  Charlemagne  a  Kentish  prince  named  Egbert,  who 
had  laid  claim   to  the  throne  of  "Wessex  and  had  been       44.  Final 
driven  into  exile  by  his  rival.     In  802  Egbert  returned     ^o^wrsBex 
to  Britain  with  the  countenance  of  both  Charlemagne  and  (827) 

the  Pope,  and  established  himself  as  king  of  Wessex.  He 
soon  became  ambitious  for 
wider  sway.  By  the  con- 
quest of  Cornwall  in  the 
year  823,  after  an  eight 
years'  fight,  he  made  safe 
his   left   flank.      Ho  tht-n 

attacked  Mercia;  and  his 

•    ,      •  ,1  11       SiLVKR  I'knny  <»k  Er.ur.HT,  AHoiT  827. 

Victories  not  only  reduced 

,,  1       .     .  "  .VeKcbeiirhftl  Rox."     "  Weriu-anl  Moiii-t. 

that  country  to  submission. 

but  so  terrified  the  ])rinces  of  X(jrthumbria  that  they  yielded  to 

him  without  a  contest.    Their  representatives  met  him  with  an 

embassy,  and  saluted  him  as  their  overlord.     Thenceforth  the 

headship  of  the  kings  of  Wessex  was  acknowledged  by  jiracti- 

cally  all  of  the  Teutonic  jteoples  of  Britain,  and  with  this  date, 

827,  properly  begins  the  history  of  the  English  nation. 


62  CJONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

On   the  Continent,  during  the   period   449-827,  the   other 
migrating  tribes  of    Teutonic  stock  went  through  a  similar 
45.  Con-        cycle  of  experiences,  but  on  a  larger  scale.     They  over- 
temporary     ^jirew  the  Eoman  imperial  power  in  what  is  now  Ger- 
European.  '-  '■ 

history  many  and  France,  but,  unlike  their  kinsmen  in  Britain, 

they  preserved  man}^  Roman  elements  in  their  language,  laws, 
and  civil  and  social  organization.  As  in  England,  one  tribe, 
the  Franks,  extended  its  sway  over  its  weaker  neighbors,  and 
it  created  a  consolidated  monarchy  under  the  rule  of  Charle- 
magne. Among  these  tribes,  also,  Christianity  gained  ac- 
ceptance ;  but  on  the  Continent  church  and  state  became 
cemented  in  a  union  far  closer  than  in  England;  for  in  the 
year  800  the  Pope  created  a  second  "  Eoman  Empire "  by 
crowning  Charlemagne  Emperor  on  Christmas  day  in  Saint 
Peter's  Church  at  Eome. 


Between    the    years    449    and   827,    Britain,   like   western 
Europe,  was  one  vast  battlefield,  on  which  invading  Teutonic 
46.  Sum-       tribes  fought  first  with  the  native  races  and  then  with  one 
™ary  another  for  the  most  valuable  districts,  and  for  political 

supremacy.  The  Celts  maintained  a  separate  existence  only 
among  the  mountains  of  uorthern  Scotlaild,  Strathclyde, 
Wales,  and  CoruAvall.  The  invaders  overran  the  rest  of 
Britain,  and  created  various  kingdoms,  among  which  Wessex, 
the  most  favorably  situated  for  domination,  ultimately  became 
supreme,  while  Kent,  Essex,  Northumbria,  and  the  rest  sank 
to  the  level  of  administrative  divisions,  ruled  at  first  by  kings 
who  had  acknowledged  the  king  of  Wessex  as  their  overlord, 
and  later  by  officers  called  ealdormen. 

Meanwhile  heathen  Britain  was  becoming  Christianized; 
an  elementary  political  system  was  being  evolved;  and,  most 
important  of  all,  there  was  growing  up  in  Wessex  a  state  strong 
enough  to  defend  the  vitally  important  valley  of  the  Thames 
during  the  coming  Scandinavian  invasion. 


CELTS    AGAINST  TELTUNS 


i>-6 


TOPICS 

(1)  Contrast  the  motives  and  tlie  metliods  of  the  Romans  in  Sugr^estive 
utilizing  the  resources  of  Britain  willi  tiiose  of  tiie  Teutonic  iiiva<l-  ^°P'" 
ers.  (2)  What  names  of  English  counties  are  evidently  derived 
from  Teutonic  tribes?  (3)  Compare  the  religion  of  the  Teutons 
with  tliat  of  the  Romans.  (4)  Wiiy  did  the  newcomers  allow  the 
Rcmian  cities,  so  expensively  built  and  fortified,  to  fall  into  ruin  ? 
(;j)  Do  you  judge  that  the  Angles  or  the  Saxons  were  the  more  nu- 
merous among  the  invaders,  and  from  what  evidence  ?  (6)  What 
evidence  is  there  in  Britain  and  on  the  Continent  which  indicates 
that  the  Angles  were  the  more  consolidated  tribe  ?  (7)  Compare 
Hadrian's  system  of  frontier  defense  with  Offa's.  (8)  What  is 
tlie  derivation  of  Cornwall  ?  of  Strathdyde  ?  ((»)  What  effect  did 
Egbert's  residence  at  Charlemagne's  court  probably  have  on  his 
ideas  of  empire  ?  (10)  Trace  in  the  genealogical  tables  (pp.  7;i, 
etc.)  the  descent  of  King  Edward  VII.  from  Egbert.  (11)  How 
does  it  happen  that  the  Welsh  and  Irish  of  the  present  day  call 
the  people  of  England  "Saxons"  instead  of  Englishmen? 

(12)  The  legend  of  Ilengist  and  Horsa.  (13)  The  Slori/  of  Den-  Search 
irulf  tifi  an  expression  of  Teutonic  character.  (14)  The  signitica-  ^°P'*^* 
tion  of  -hnm,  -luirk,  -ton,  -ea,  -bruhio,  -furd,  -horough,  -stend,  in 
names  of  English  villages.  (15)  The  Welsh  myths  of  the  Round 
Table  in  Enu'lish  literature.  (1(5)  How  Pope  Gregory  became  in- 
tere.sted  in  the  conversion  of  ?]ngland.  (17)  The  career  of  Saint 
Patrick. 


REFERENCES 

See  luaps.  pp.  37.  40;  Gardiner.  Srhnnl  Atlas,  maps  3-0;  Mar-    Geography 
kinder.  liritain  and  the  British  Stas.  107-204  ;   Hughes.  GcfKjniii/iif 
in    British  History,  ch.   iv.  ;    Peanson,    Jlislnrirnl  Maps   <>f  Eng- 
land,  23;  Reich,  Xew  Students'  Atlas,  maps  1,  3. 

Bright,  Ilistnry  of  Em/land,  I.  l-o,  28-:jl  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  Secondary 
History,  clis.  ii.  iii.  ;  Ransoine,  Adranred  History,  10-30;  (Jreen,  authorities 
Short  History,  ch.  i.  §§  1-4,  —History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  i. 
ch.s.  1.  ii.,  —  Making  of  England  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of 
England,  bk.  i.  ch.s.  iii.  iv.  ;  .Montague,  Elements  of  English  Con- 
slitufional  History, ch.  i.  ;  Stubi)s,  Select  Charters,  1-7,  —  ('un.sti- 
tutional  History.  I.  ch.  Ii.  ;  H.  Taylor,  'Hie  English  Constitution, 
I.  ch.  ii.  ;  Cunningham,  (irowih  of  English  Industry  and  Com- 
merce. I.  .'>4-r(0  ;  Brewer,  Stuil'nl''s  Hume,  ch.  ii.  ;  Lingard.  ///'.y- 
tnry  of  England.  I.  chs.  ii.  iii.  ;  Ramsay.  Foundntions  of  England, 
I.  ch.s.  ix.  xi.-xiii. ;  Church,  Early  Britain,  ch.  xvil. ;  Ithy.-*,  Celtic 


54 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


Britain^  chs.  iv.  v. ;  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland ;  Lawless,  Ireland 
chs.  iii.-vi.  ;  Edwards,  Wales,  cli.  iii.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland., 
L  ch.  ii.  ;  Freeman,  Old  English  History,  chs.  iv,-vii., —  The  Eng- 
lish People  in  Their  Three  Homes ;  G.  Allen,  Anglo-Saxon 
England  ;  E.  L.  Cutts,  Augustine  of  Canterbury  ;  J.  R.  Allen,  Mon- 
umental History  of  the  British  Church  ;  Traill,  Social  History,  I. 
149-153,  176-180. 

Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  4-7  ;  Kendall,  Source- 
Book,  ch.  i. ;  Howland,  The  Early  Germans  (University  of 
Pennsylvania  Reprints,  VI.  no.  3);  Tacitus,  Agricola,  bk.  v., — 
Germania  ;  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  449-827  a.d.  ;  Beds,  Ecclesi- 
astical History  of  ijngland ;  Gildas,  Wo7-ks ;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  Illustrative  of  English  Church  History,  nos.  i.-ix.  See 
New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllab^is,  233-235, 
—  Historical  Sources  in  Schools,  143-145. 

Lanier,  The  Boy's  Mabinogion,  —  The  Boy''s  King  Arthur  ; 
Hall,  Beowulf. 


CHAPTEK  lY. 
EARLY    ENGLISH    IXSTITUTTONS 

Most  of  the  permanent  features  of  Anglo-Saxon  civilization 
may  be  traced  back  to  the  period  described  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  Throughout  all  subsequent  English  history  the  .  ..  . 
chief  factors  in  English  national  life  were  to  remain  of  English 
(1)  the  state,  (2)  the  church,  and  (3)  a  social  organization  "^^titutions 
based  on  the  possession  of  land.  The  Teutonic  practice  of 
discussing  matters  of  common  interest  in  ''  moots  "  was  the 
germ  from  which  developed  the  representative  system  of  gov- 
ernment that  England  has  given  to  the  world;  the  Teutonic 
councils  of  chiefs  and  "  wise  men "  foreshadowed  the  privy 
councils,  cabinets,  and  parliaments  of  modern  times ;  the 
unique  Teutonic  device  of  making  the  monarchy  elective,  but 
only  within  a  certain  family,  still  prevails  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  over  which  the  sovereign  rules  "  by  hereditary 
right  and  by  the  choice  of  the  people."  For  these  reasons, 
it  is  desirable  at  this  point  to  examine  in  detail  some  of  the 
institutions  which  grew  up  under  Egbert  and  his  immediate 
successors. 

The  basis  of    the  Anglo-Saxon  political  system,  as  of  the 
Norman  feudid  system  which  was   later   engrafted   upon   it, 
was  landownership.      Apparently,  during   the  period  of         ^g    _  ^ 
invasion,  a  portion  of  the  land  .seized  by  a  conquering       stat*  and 
tribe  was  reserved  for  the  state,  and  other  jiortions  were 
allotted  to  individuals  as  a  reward  for  their  services  during 
the  conquest.     The  largest  share,  of  course,  fell  to  the  king; 
but  each  warrior  of  uoble  blood  received  generous  estates  for 

66 


66  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

the  support  of  himself  and  his  followers  ;  and  each  fighting 
freeman  received  an  allotment  proportionate  either  to  his  serv- 
ices or  to  the  needs  of  his  family.  The  customary  unit  allot- 
ment for  a  freeman  (called  a  "hide"  of  land)  was  probably 
about  thirty-three  acres. 

Under  Egbert  and  his  successors  the  bond  between  land  and 

rank  became  very  close,  and  definite  proportions  were  fixed 

49.  Caste      between  rank  and  landholding.     (1)   The  gesiths,  who  at 

based  upon    ^^.^  lived  with  their   chief   and   needed   no  land,  now 
landowner-  ' 

ship  developed  into  a  lower  landed  aristocracy,  but  they  still 

owed  military  service  to  the  king.  Curiously  enough,  they 
assumed  a  more  humble  title  as  their  dignity  increased,  and 
were  now  known  as  tliegns,  or  "servants."  Soon,  any 
ceorl  who  held  five  hides  of  land  was  held  to  be  "  of  thegn- 
right  worthy."  (2)  The  thegn  who  came  to  own  forty  hides 
might  even  become  "  of  eorl-right  worthy " ;  for  the  wars  of 
supremacy  had  confused  and  partly  obliterated  mere  distinc- 
tions of  blood.  (3)  No  one  could  become  an  ealdorman  who 
did  not  hold  forty  hides.  (4)  The  ethelings/  or  immediate 
kindred  of  the  kings,  held  still  larger  estates.  (5)  The  king 
possessed  vast  crown  "demesnes,"  or  estates,  both  for»his  own 

support  and  as  a  source 
from  which  he  might 
reward  his  followers. 
(6)  Below  the  freemen 
was  a  large  non-land- 
holding  class,  probably 
sprung  largely  from  con- 
quered races.  Most  of 
Wooden  Plow. 
^  r,  ,     ,       „  ,  ,  its  members  were  serfs 

From  a  baxon  calendar  of  the  tenth  century. 

bound  to  labor  on  a 
particular  estate,  occupying  land  for  which  they  paid  rent  in 
labor  or  in  produce ;  otliers  were  mere  slaves. 

While  every  lord  of  an  estate  was  responsible  for  the  govern- 


EARLY    ENGLISH    INSTITUTIONS  57 

ment  of  his  domains,  the  affairs  of  tlie  nation  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  king  and  liis  Witan  (couneilors  or  wise  men).  Any 
etlieling  miglit  succeed  to  the  throne,  if  accepted  bj'  the  50  powen 
Witan  and  crowned  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  on  °^  ^^^  king 
his  solemn  oath  to  "  govern  in  accordance  with  right  and  cus- 
tom." In  the  king's  hand,  lay  the  appointment  of  all  jjublic 
servants  of  the  nation.  He  regulated  trade  through  customs 
duties,  market  dues,  and  monopolies,  and  he  was  in  a  limited 
way  the  preserver  of  public  order  and  the  fount  of  justice  ;  yet 
his  more  important  edicts  had  the  force  of  law  only  when 
ratified  by  the  ''counsel  and  consent''  of  the  "Witan.  As 
most  public  matters  were  settled  in  the  various  moots,  many 
of  the  royal  edicts  were  merely  records  and  amendments  of 
existing  customs  regarding  fines,  punishments,  and  the  general 
administration  of  justice.  Among  other  things,  Alfred  (890) 
legislated  about  treason,  Edward  (920)  about  social  privileges, 
—  for  instance,  scholars  and  enterprising  merchants  were 
made  thegn-worthy,  —  and  Edgar  (959)  about  uniform  coin- 
age and  measures. 

Important  actions  like  the  declaration  of  war  and  the  grant- 
ing of  land  had  to  be  ratified  in  the  Witenagemote  (assembly 

of  the  Witan),  which  included  (1)  the  ethelings,  (2)  the      „    _ 

^  ^  "  *  ^  ^  51.  The 

ealdormen  or  eorls,  —  for  the  two  classes  were  now  be-      Witenage- 

coming  merged  through  the  customary  appointment  of  ^°^ 
eorls  to  the  position  of  ealdormen,  —  (.^)  the  bishops  (§  109),  and 
(4)  the  king's  thegns  or  personal  followers.  The  assumption 
of  power  by  the  Witenagemote  in  place  of  the  folkmoot  prob- 
ably came  about  by  insensible  degrees,  and  for  purely  practical 
reasons.  Ordinary  men,  though  entitled  to  vote  in  the  folk- 
moot,  were  loath  to  leave  their  work  and  journey,  at  some 
expense,  to  a  distant  meeting;  hence  they  shirked  responsi- 
bility, while  the  officers  of  church  and  state  and  the  great 
landholders  had  to  assume  it.  The  Witenagemctte  met  twice 
(later  thrice)  a  year,  at  Easter,  (Whitsuntide),  and  Christmas; 


58  CONQUESTS   OF  ENGLAND 

but  after  the  union  of  the  kingdoms  (827),  it  rapidly  became  a 
mere  agency  for  registering  the  king's  will. 

The  royal  revenue  consisted  (1)  of  the  king's  own  income 
from  his  crown  demesnes,  (2)  of  the  feorm,  or  tribute  paid 

52.  Public     ^y  landholders  as  a  condition  of  their  tenure  of  the  soil, 
finance  and  (3)  of  the  king's  share  of  the  fines  and  fees  collected 

by  the  royal  officers  of  justice.  The  king  received  no  salary 
from  a  state  treasury,  nor,  indeed,  was  state  finance  in  the 
modern  sense  possible,  since  no  corresponding  system  of  taxa- 
tion had  been  created.  The  great  public  expenditures  required 
in  a  modern  state  —  for  salaries,  public  education,  highways 
and  water  ways,  international  relations,  national  defense, 
internal  police,  etc.  —  had  no  direct  counterpart  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  system ;  all  of  them  that  were  then  deemed  indispen- 
sable were  provided  from  the  king's  private  purse,  or  through 
the  trinoda  necessitas  (triple  obligation)  laid  upon  every  land- 
holder (1)  to  keep  roads  and  bridges  in  repair,  (2)  to  maintain 
fortresses,  and  (3)  to  do  military  service  when  summoned  by 
the  king  or  ealdorman. 

For  administrative  purposes,  the  land  was  divided  into 
shires,  hundreds,  townships   or  boroughs,  and   estatps.     The 

.„    -        .    earlier  shires,  such  as  Kent,  Sussex,  Essex,  and  Middle- 

53.  Organi-  '  >  j  - 

zation  of  sex,  were  often  kingdoms  which  had  been  absorbed  by 
more  powerful  states  during  the  process  of  unification. 
Later  shires  {e.g.  Derbyshire)  were  districts  each  dominated  by 
some  fortified  stronghold,  and  therefore  erected  into  a  shire 
under  the  government  of  the  owner  of  the  fortress.  Each 
shire  was  ruled  by  an  ealdorman  as  military  leader,  and  by  a 
sheriff  as  the  king's  fiscal  agent  and  legal  representative  within 
the  shire. 

Several  shires  were  frequently  placed  under  the  same  ealdor- 
man, but  each  had  its  own  sheriff,  through  whom  were  issued 
all  proclamations,  summonses  to  the  various  moots,  and  other 
official  communications  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  shire.     Mat- 


KARLV  i:n«;i.isii  iNsrnirioNS  ")9 

tei'S  of  I'ominon  interest  to  all  tlio  iiiliabitunts  were  disenssed 
and  settled  through  a  shire  moot,  or  meeting  of  all  landowners 
in  the  shire,  whieh  was  called  twice  a  year  (in  ^lay  and  in  Octo- 
ber). At  these  moots  the  ealdormau  was  present  to  declare  the 
secular  law,  and  the  bishop  to  declare  the  ecclesiastical  law. 

In  most  shires  the  smaller  divisions  were  called  "  hundreds," 
a  name   the    origin   of   which  is   not    clearly   known.      The 
hundred  was  governed  througli  its  hundred  moot,  which,       54    gmj. 
in  the  earliest  times,  every  head  of  a  family  was  com-  dreds 

pelled  to  attend  on  penalty  of  a  fine.  As  the  number  of 
inhabitants  increased,  each  town  within  the  hundred  sent  its 
reeve  (or  steward),  its  parish  priest,  and  four  householders 
to  act  in  its  behalf — an  arrangement  which  foreshadowed  the 
modern  system  of  representation.  In  five  of  the  shires  the 
minor  divisions  were  called  **  wapentakes"  instead  of  hundreds. 

The  political  units  within  the  hundreds  were  the  "town- 
ships," each  consisting  originally  of  a  collection  of  tillers  of  the 
soil  bound  together  by  neighborhood  and  common  interest. 
Some  of  these  townships  were  governed  by  the  reeve  of  ships  and 
the  local  landlord,  but  others  gradually  attained  self-  oroug 
government  under  an  elected  reeve,  and  regulated  their 
internal  affairs  in  town  moots  in  accordance  with  "by-laws" 
enacted  by  themselves.  The  more  important  townships  natu- 
rally provided  themselves  with  permanent  defenses  in  the 
shape  of  a  A\all,  a  stockade,  or  a  rampart  and  ditch,  and  were 
then  known  as  "burghs,"  or  "boroughs."  Upon  the  township 
governments  rested  the  responsibility  of  executing  within  their 
limits  the  decrees  of  the  hundred  and  shire  moots,  and  of  en- 
forcing the  common  law  (§  of))  of  the  locality.  Thus  the  citi- 
zens of  a  township  learned  to  recognize  the  value  of  public 
discussion  and  of  the  free  expression  of  opinion,  and  devel- 
oped a  sentiun-nt  of  loyalty  to  the  common  law  which  they 
had  had  some  share  in  creating. 

The  student  should  remember  that  in  the  time  of  Egbert 


60  CONQUESTS   OF  ENGLAND 

no  national  code  of  laws  existed.  The  laws  of  the  time  were 
hardly  more  than  precepts  applicable  to  the  simplest  and  most 

_  common  relations  of  life.     Ethelbert  of  Kent  roughly 

56.  The  11. 

"common      codified  the  most  important  laws  of  his  kingdom  about 

^^^  "  the  end  of  the  sixth  century.     Ine  did  the  same  work  for 

Wessex  a  hundred  years  later,  and  OfEa  for  Mercia  at  the  end 
of  the  next  century ;  but  their  work  was  local,  unsystematic, 
and  fragmentary.  Under  Egbert's  descendants,  however,  the 
elements  common  to  all  three  of  these  codes  were  gradually 
blended  into  a  body  of  customs  prevailing  from  the  Firth  of 
Forth  to  the  English  Channel,  which  made  up  the  "  common 
law  "  of  the  land. 

The  criminal  law  rested  upon  the  rude  Teutonic  notion  of 
crime  as  an  injury  done  to  an  individual  or  to  the  community, 

57.  Legal  which  could  be  made  good  by  suitable  compensation.  Its 
penalties  penalties  therefore  took  the  form  of  money  payments: 
procedure      ivergUd  (man  payment)  for  murder,  and  bot  (reparation) 

for  bodily  injury.  The  wergild  of  a  ceorl  was  200  shillings,  of 
an  ealdorman  2400  shillings,  of  a  king  14,400  shillings.  The 
scale  of  bot  was  ridiculously  minute.  For  knocking  out  a 
ceorl's  tooth  it  was  8  shillings,  for  cutting  off  a  thumb  30  shil- 
lings, for  gouging  out  an  eye  66  shillings,  6  pence,  and  3  far- 
things. The  person  charged  with  crime  might  free  himself  of 
guilt  by  denying  it  on  oath  in  open  moot,  and  getting  twelve 
responsible  persons  to  swear  that  his  word  was  reliable.  But 
the  oaths  of  these  "compurgators,"  as  they  were  called,  were 
of  varying  value ;  for  an  ealdorman's  word  outweighed  that  of 
six  thegns,  and  the  king's  oath  was  good  against  all  others. 

If  the  accused  could  not  secure  compurgators,  he  underwent 
some  "  ordeal,"  or  appeal  to  God  as  his  compurgator.  He  was 
taken  to  some  church,  and  there  was  compelled  to  walk  blind- 
fold among  red-hot  plowshares,  or  to  thrust  his  hand  into 
boiling  water  and  take  out  a  stone.  If  he  escaped  injury,  he 
was  held  to  be  innocent. 


KAULY    KN(;L1SII    INSTITI  TK  tNS 


CI 


One  of  the  greatest  tasks  of  tlie  early  Christian  ('hurch  in 
Britain  was  to  alter   the   Teutonic  standard  of   conduct  and 
chai-acter,  by  teaching  men   that   injury  to   others  was     53    Anew 
sinful  as  Avell  as  criminal.    The  standards  of  Christianity     moral  code 
sharply  condemned  the  faults  most  prevalent  in  that  age  and 
race.     In  a  period  when  individuals  resented  any  attempt  to 
limit  their  freedom  of  action,  the  church  stood  for  the  prin- 
ciple of  submission  to  law;  in  a  periud  when  every  man's  hand 
was    against    his    weaker 
neighbor,  it  stood  for  the 
duty   of   refraining   from 
aggression  and  retaliation. 
By    making   its   churches 
sanctuaries,    it    mitigated 
the  terrors  of  the  blood- 
feud,     which     made     no 
distinction  between  volun- 
tary and  involuntary  man-  St.  Mauy's  Chavel,  Kingston. 
slaughter.        It    stood    for            Early  Saxon  type  of  .hurch  edifice, 
the  development  of  intelligence  and  of  self-sacrifice,  amid  a 
society  whose   interests  were  largely  material   and   physical 
and  selfish.     Furthermore,  the  monasteries,  whose  inhabitants 
labored  unceasingly  as  woodcutters,  farmers,  herdsmen,  students, 
writers,  first  taught  the  barbarians  that  industry  is  dignified ; 
that  toil,  study,  devotion  to  an  end  not  immediately  realizable, 
are  worthy  of  man's  pursuit. 

"We  have  already  noted  the  general  effect  of  the  adoption  of 
Latin  Christianity  in  creating  a  connection  between  Britain  and 
civilized  Europe.     One  specific  effect  was  the  iutroduc-      ^^   ^^^^ 

tion  into  liritain  of  Latin  as  a  living  language,  by  the     of  English 

,,  .  .  ,  ^     .  .    1  .        literature 

use  of  which  the  student  in  British  monasteries  might 

come  to  know  the  classic   treasures  of   literature,  of  scieme. 

and  of  philosophy.     liofore  the  Syno<l  of  Wliitby,  litt-rature 

was  almost  wholly  neglected  in  Britain;  after  Whitby  Latin 


62  co^;quests  of  England 

literature  on  religious  and  historical  subjects  developed  with 
great  rapidity  through  the  agency  of  the  church.  To  the 
monks  we  owe  vivid  if  not  accurate  pictures  of  early  English 
history  —  to  the  Welsh  Gildas  (about  550)  the  story  of  Vor- 
tigern  and  the  Saxons;  to  Bede  of  Jarrow  (673)  the  history  of 
the  church  in  England;  to  Nennius  (750),  to  Asser  (885),  and 
to  the  monkish  compilers  of  materials  later  incorporated  into 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  all  else  that  we  know  about  the 
period  before  Alfred.  It  was  a  monk,  Csedmon  (d.  680),  that 
gave  to  English  literature  its  first  religious  poetry  —  a  series 
of  works  treating  of  the  creation  and  the  fall  of  man  and  the 
redemptive  work  of  Christ. 


The  year  827  marked  the  beginnings  of  the  English  nation. 
Political  institutions  combining  monarchical,  aristocratic,  and 
60    Sum-       democratic  elements,  first  developed  on  a  limited  scale 
^^^7  in  the  minor  tribal  kingdoms,  now  appeared  on  a  scale 

truly  national  through  the  union  of  these  kingdoms  under 
Egbert.  Under  his  descendants  the  system  rapidly  took  form 
with  the  following  as  its  chief  features :  (1)  the  monarch  as 
the  chief  landowner  of  the  realm,  as  the  source  of  power  and 
the  enforcer  of  order  ;  (2)  the  king's  Witan  as  the  council  with- 
out whose  sanction  his  most  important  functions  could  not  be 
legally  exercised  (this  was  the  seed  of  the  later  Great  Council 
and  Parliament)  ;  (3)  several  distinct  administrative  divisions 
—  shires,  hundreds,  and  townships;  (4)  the  common  law,  as 
the  standard  by  which  the  acts  of  monarchs,  nobles,  and  com- 
mons were  alike  to  be  judged.  The  departments  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  not  yet  sharply  defined,  and  much  of  the  public 
business  was  done  in  the  general  folkmoot;  but  there  was  a 
distinct  tendencj^  to  delegate  power  to  special  officers  and  to 
the  Witenagemote. 

Meanwhile  Home,  after  having  wholly  failed  to  perpetuate 
her  political  and  social  system  in  the  island,  made  a  second 


EAKLV    I;N<;I.IS1I    INMITUTIONS 


<;3 


anil  far  more  lasting  conquest  of  its  inhabitants.  The  English 
Church,  at  once  the  servant  and  the  rival  of  the  secular  power, 
proved  to  be  an  indispensable  agency  in  redeeming  the  masses 
of  the  people  from  barbarism,  and  in  teaching  their  rulers  how 
to  apply  system  and  order  to  the  i)roblem  of  administering  the 
government. 

TOPICS 

(I)  t){  what  advantage  w;is  it  iii  early  times  to  hold  the  meetings  Suggestive 
of  the  Witenagemote  at  Kaster,  Whitsuntide,  and  Christmas  ?  *°P'c^ 
(2)  Compare  the  subjects  on  which  Alfred,  Edward,  and  Edgar 
legislated,  so  as  to  show  what  process  was  going  on  in  the  nation. 
(:{)  What  pertinence,  and  what  injustice,  was  there  in  Milton's 
calling  the  contests  from  44!)  to  827  '-the  battles  of  kites  and 
crows "  ?  (4)  Compare  the  position  of  Egbert  with  that  of 
Charlemagne.  (5)  Show  just  why  each  class  mentioned  in  §  •')! 
sliould  have  been  included  in  the  Witenagemote.  (G)  Why  .should 
tiie  church  have  been  founder  and  patron  of  the  earliest  schools  in 
England  ?  (7)  What  possible  origins  can  you  suggest  for  the  use 
of  '•  hundred"  as  the  name  of  a  political  division  ?  (8)  Why  were 
the  main  thoroughfares  of  England  early  placed  under  the  "  king's 
peace  "  ? 

(0)  The  meaning  of  the  word  "hide."  (10)  What  English 
counties  are  divided  into  wapentakes,  and  why  ?  (11)  Which 
of  the  United  States  is  divided  into  hundreds  ?  (12)  Modern 
survivals  of  AngloSa.xon  organization  :  the  Chiltern  Hundreds, 
tiie  Ridings  of  York.  (13)  A  typical  early  English  mona.stcry  ; 
f.g.  Jarrow.  (14)  A  comparison  of  the  work  of  Milton  and 
of  Cadmon. 


Search 
topics 


REFERENCES 

Hright,  Ifistiirij  of  Enijhnxl,  1.  :'il-.!<i  ;  Gardiner.  Sluthut'n  His- 
tory. 2!»-.W,  :{8-4i;  4.'>-.'.2,  (((M'.l,  (i7-7.") ;  Han.souie,  Aihuiiired  ///••»- 
tiiry,  4»)-.'jO;  (Jreen,  Short  Ilintory,  1-5,  14-33,  38-41,  58-01,— 
Makituj  of  Emjlund,  147-188  ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitu- 
tionnl  History,  chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Feilden,  Constitutional  History,  see 
Index;  Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  7-13,  —  Constitnlionul  History,  I, 
chs.  v.-viii.  ;  Medley,  Students^  Mnnnnl  of  Cottstitutionul  History, 
1&-10 ;  Ta.Hwell-Langmead,  Kmilish  Constitutional  History,  eh.  i.  ; 
Gibbins,  Industrial  History,  1-7  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of 
Emjland,  I.  i:i-li>,  2r>-27  ;  Church,  Early  Britain,  chs.  xv.  xvi. ; 


Secondary 
authorities 


64  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

Ramsay,  Foiuidations  of  England,  I.  chs.  viii.-x.  ;  Wakeman  and 
Hassall,  Essays  on  English  Constitutional  History,  no.  i.  ;  Lin- 
gard,  History  of  England,  I.  ch.  vii.  ;  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest, 
I.  ch.  iii.  ;  Brooke,  History  of  English  Literature,  ch.  i.  ;  Lappen- 
berg,  England  under  Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  II.  pt.  v.  ;  Traill,  Social 
England,  I.  121-140,  153-161  ;  Cunningham,  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  65-83  ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History 
of  English  Law  before  Edward  First,  I.  bk.  i.  ch.  i.  See  New 
England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  234-235. 
Source  Rowland,  Ordeals,  Compurgations,  etc.  (University  of  Pennsyl- 

vania Reprints,  IV.  no.  4). 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANGLO-SAXONS  AGAINST   DANES    (787-1042) 

The  tunuilL  and  confusion  of  the  tirst  Anglo-Saxon  inva- 
sions had  scarcely  died  away  under  the  orderly  rule  of  Egbert, 
and  the  sea  rovers  had  liardly  become  changed  into  g^  Yh^ 
peaceful  farmers  and  herdsmen,  when  a  second  series  of  Northmen 
invasions  by  Teutonic  hordes  threatened  once  more  to  deso- 
late Britain,  The  new  invaders  belonged  to  a  race  of  Scandi- 
navian "Northmen"  who,  from  the  eighth  to  the  thirteenth 
century,  carried  terror  into  every  part  of  Europe  and  even  into 
northern  Africa  and  the  Mediterranean  islands. 

Their  assaults  were  due  to  an  invincible  love  of  fighting 
inborn  in  every  son  of  the  North,  and  to  the  physical  condi- 
tions about  the  Baltic  Sea.  Those  sterile  lands  furnished  but 
a  scanty  living  for  a  race  of  active  and  enterprising  warriors, 
and  all  the  younger  and  more  energetic  spirits  turned  naturally 
to  piracy  and  conquest.  Thus  the  bauds  of  Northmen  that 
from  time  to  time  harassed  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  the  Con- 
tinent were  composed  of  the  most  reckless,  haughty,  desperate, 
and  untamable  elements  among  the  Baltic  peoples  —  adven- 
turers who,  having  nothing  to  lose  and  wealth  and  glory  to 
gain,  fought  with  desperation  and  slow  without  mercy.  ^.     ^ 

"  Snorro  tells  us  that  they  thouglit  it  a  shame  and  misery     On  H-ro^g, 
not  to  die  in  battle;  and  if  natural  death  seemed  to  l)e         **"  ""^^  ' 
coming  on,  they  would  cut  wounds  in  their  flesh,  that  Odin 
might  receive  them  as  warri(jrs  slain." 

The  assaults  of  the  Northmen  upon  Britain  began  with  an 
attack  on  Wessex  in  787.    Thenceforth,  for  over  fifty  years,  the 

Co 


66 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


entire  coast  from  Lands  End  to  the  Firth  of  Forth  was  scourged 
by  repeated  raids.     The  largest  towns,  Winchester,  Rochester, 
62.  Attacks  Canterbury,   London,   York,   did   not   escape.      A   band 
^?^-  would  land  without  warning  near  some  prosperous  town, 

(787-850)  plunder  it  of  all  its  valuables,  slaughter  all  the  inhab- 
itants that  resisted,  and  on  the  approach  of  an  armed  force 
would  take  flight  in  its  long,  swift  ships  of  war;  or  the 
horde  would  leave   its   ships,  seize  horses   from   the   nearest 

farms,  and  ride  swiftly 
inland  to  despoil  some 
wealthy  monastery  of 
its  gold  and  silver  plate, 
its  rich  altar  cloths,  its 
jeweled  images.  As 
these  ''Vikings"  (creek- 
dwellers)  grew  bolder, 
they  advanced  up  to  the 
head  of  tide  water  in 
the  rivers,  built  in- 
trenched camps,  and 
then  harried  the  adjacent  country  at  their  leisure.  > 

Encouraged  by  the  almost  uniform  success  of  these  raids, 
the  Northmen  became  more  ambitious,  and  in  the  middle  of 
63    Danish    ^^^®  ninth  century  began  a  period  of  conquest  and  settle- 
conquests      ment.     One  horde  marched  across  Scythia  and  terrorized 
the  region  about  the  Hellespont,  another  moved  eastward 
into  Russia  and  founded  a  dynasty  which  lasted  for  seven 
centuries,  a  third  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  Seine,  others 
occupied  Sicily  and  various   other   lands   upon   the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  still  others  seized  upon  Ireland  and  the  smaller 
islands  west  of  Britain. 

Apparently  these  "Danes,"  as  the  English  called  them, 
made  their  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  East  Anglia, 
whose  stout-hearted  king,  Edmund,  chose  to  die  ratlier  than  to 


A  Viking  Boat. 

Found  in  a  clay  barrow  in  Norway,  1880;  78  ft. 
long ;  fitted  for  16  pairs  of  oars.  The  owner 
was  buried  in  a  grave-chamber  behind  the 
mast. 


ANGLO-SAXON'S   AGAINST   DANES 


GT 


renounce  Christianity  and  reign  as  their  dependent.  "Can  not 
we  kill  you?"  cried  they.  "Can  not  I  die?"  answered  he. 
So  they  bound  him  to  a  tree  and  sliot  him  to  death  Avith  arrows. 


Martyrdom  of  Krxo  Edmund  of  East  Anglia,  by  the  Danes. 
From  a  MS.  psalter  of  the  fourteeuth  century. 

East  Anglia  now  became  a  Danish  state  under  the  rule  of 
King  Guthrum,  and  thus  the  Danes  had  a  permanent  base 
for  their  attacks  upon  the  rest  of  Britain.  In  871  Guthrum 
pressed  southward  to  conquer  Wessex. 

The  resistance  offered  to  these  incursions  by  Egbert's  grand- 
son Alfred,  king  of  Wessex  from  871  to  901,  makes  him  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  kings  in  British  history.     In  the   64.  Alfred's 
first  year  of  his  reign  he  fought  nine  pitched   battles,        ''weasex 
and  the  next  six  years  were  taken  up  with  desperate      (871  878  > 
struggles  to  check  the  raids  of  the  Danes.     Again  and  again 
did  he  drive  them  from  vantage  points  which  they  had  seized 
on  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts,  blockading  them  in  estu- 
aries and  streams,  storming  their  intrenched  camps,  and  forc- 
ing them  to  make  peace  under  most  solemn  engagements  to 
withdraw  from  his  territories  —  engagements  whic-li  were  im- 
mediately broken.     Finally,  in  the  winter  of  878,  the  Danes 


68 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


appeared  iu  overwhelming  force  under  the  leadership  of  their 
king  Guthrum,  and  Alfred  had  to  retreat  to  Athelney,  an 
island  among  the  marshes  of  the  river 
Parret,  until  he  could  gain  time  to  rally 
his  followers  from  Somerset  and  Wilt- 
shire. Having  done  this,  he  defeated  the 
Danish  host  in  a  pitched  battle  at  Ethan- 
dune  (Edington),  by  the  most  desperate 
fighting.  Then,  having  surrounded  the 
enemy's  camp  at  Chippenham,  he  forced  a 
surrender  after  a  fourteen  days'  siege. 

This  double  victory  enabled  him  to  ob- 
tain favorable  terms  with  King  Guthrum 
G5  Aif    d'     ^y  ^^^®  so-called  treaty  of  Wediiiore, 
treaty  with    dividing  Britain  into  two  portions  by 
a   line   which  (roughly    stated)    ran 
from  London   northerly  to    Bedford   and 
then  northwesterly  to  Chester.     The  terri- 
tory northeast  of  that  line  as  far  as  the  Tees  was  conceded 
to   the  Danes,   and  all  territory  southwest  of  it  was   to  be 
free  from  their  incursions.     As  Guthrum  supplemented  the 
treaty  by  accepting  Christianity,  Alfred  had  some  reason  to 
hope  that  this  agreement  would  be  observed;  but  although 
Guthrum  remained  inactive  in  East  Anglia,  a  Danish  pirate 
named  Hasting  soon  renewed  the  harrying  process,  and  it  was 
only  in  895  that  Alfred  drove  him  out  of  England  into  France. 
In  the  midst  of  his  brilliant  military   successes,  Alfred's 
mind  was  busy  with  the  problems  of  good  government.     His 
66  Alfred's   statesmanship  was  shown  in  the  adoption  of  a  new  de- 
military        fensive   policy,   which   included    (1)   the  creation  of    a 
fleet    for    coast   defense,    the    forerunner    of    England's 
mighty  "navy ;    (2)  an    entire   reorganization  of   the   national 
army ;  and  (3)  the  construction  of  strongly  fortified  camps  at 
important  points,  held  by  permanent  garrisons.     In  training 


Saxon  Soldier. 

With  shield  and  battle 
ax. 


reforms 


ANGLO-SAXONS    AliAINSl    DANKS  69 

seanipii  for  the  fleet  of  more  tlian  four  hundred  vessels  with 
whii'h  he  i^uarded  his  three  coasts,  Alfred  did  not  scorn  to  learn 
of  his  enemies,  emi>loying  NN'elsh,  and  even  Danes,  for  the  in- 
struction of  his  sailors.  In  reorganizing  the  army,  he  substi- 
tuted for  the  old  untrained  _/>//-f/,  levied  only  when  invasion  had 
actually  been  made,  a  system  —  the  same  in  principle  as  that 
employed  in  France  and  Germany  to-day — by  which  the  fighting 
population  underwent  a  training  in  arms  by  turns,  one  third 
being  in  camp  while  the  rest  attended  to  their  home  duties. 
Alfred's  ability  was  shown  no  less  clearly  in  the  direction 
of  internal  atfairs.  Abandoning  the  futile  dream  of  universal 
lordshijt  over  Britain,  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  secur-  67.  Alfreds 
ing  good  government  in  his  own  kingdom  —  securing  sys-  ^g^i^^gg^an^ 
tematic  justice  by  the  codification  of  the  laws  of  Ine  and  ship 

of  Offa,  replacing  the  earlier  system  of  money  fines  by  other 


ontnidnc  fiTKtji  ma-jtc  'bco6cnccc  cdivn  ha^-on 

Portion  of  Cai.kndar  PRKFrxKO  to  thk  Anolo-Saxon  Chko.mclb 
(Kr.KVKNTH  Ckntukv   MS.). 
"Crist  wses  a<ciiny<l  cyninj;^  wuMcir  on  inidiie  winter"  etc. 
Christ  was    burn        kin^'      of  n'orj'  '"  "'•'•      winter. 

penalties,  and  uniting  with  the  church  to  make  the  laws  of  mo- 
rality the  basis  of  the  legal  system,  lie  encouraged  exploration 
and  commercial  intercourse  with  Europe,  and  sent  embassies 
as  far  as  India.  He  directed  the  compilation  of  the  earlier 
portion.s  of  the  Ati(jlr>-Saxnn  Chronirh',  to  which  we  owe  most 
of  our  knowledge  regarding  the  Teutonic  conquest  of  England; 


70  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

he  imported  teachers  from  the  Continent  and  created  schools 
for  his  young  nobles ;  he  devoted  much  of  his  own  time  to 
writing  treatises,  and  to  translating  works  in  foreign  languages. 
"It  seems  to  me  better,"  he  wrote,  "that  we  turn  into  the  lan- 
guage that  we  all  know,  certain  books  which  are  most  needful 
for  all  to  know." 

After  Alfred's  death  in   901,   his   successors   restored   the 
West  Saxon  supremacy  in  England.     Alfred's   son   Edward 

(901-925)  forced  Mercia,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  ISTorthum- 

68.  Alfred's    ^  ^  '  ^    '  . 
successors     bria,  southern  Scotland,  and  Strathclyde  to  recognize  his 

(901-940)  overlordship.  In  the  reign  of  Edward's  son  Athelstau 
(925-940),  the  Danes  and  Scots,  assisted  by  Vikings  from  the 
Hebrides,  formed  a  confederacy  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
Wessex;  but  they  were  defeated  in  a  desperate  battle  at 
Brunanburh  (937). 

To  this  victory  is  due  the  fact  that  Britain  remained  funda- 
mentally English  rather  than  Danish. 

' '  There  lay  smitten 

On  the  field  of  battle 
Battle  Song  Five  young  kings 

of  Bninan-  Lulled  by  the  sword  ; 

burh,  937  And  seven  lords  by  them,  * 

Earls  of  Aulaf ; 

An  host  untold. 

Of  the  Fleet  and  the  Scots 

Was  never  more  slaughter 

In  this  island 

Since  hitherward 

English  and  Saxons 

Came  up  from  the  East." 

Both   Edward   and  Athelstan  were  able  rulers,  continuing 
Alfred's   enlightened   policy  of   internal   administration,   and 

69.  Arch-      making  England  respected  on  the  Continent ;  but  their 
DunsUn        successors  were  either  short-lived   or   incompetent,  and 
(960-988)      then  the  direction  of  affairs  fell  into  the  hands  of  Arch- 
bishop Dunstan,  the  first  of  England's  great  ecclesiastical  states- 


AXr.LO-SAX'ONS    ACAINST    PANES 


'1 


AlJCHBISHOP  DUXSTAN  WRITING. 

From  a  twelftli  t-eiitiiry  MS. 


liu'ii.  riitU'i-  liis  i^uidaiioo  tlip  West  Saxon  niinian-hs  won*  Ifd 
to  attniipta  luiliiv  natiiuial  lathor  than  local.  Tiu-y  .sccureil  a 
uniform  standard  of  \vt'i,i,'lits  antl  measures  throughout  the 
island,  and  thus  aided  eomuier- 
eial  intercourse,  the  most  effective 
of  all  unifying  forces.  The  main 
roads  of  England  were  placed 
under  the  '•  king's  peace  " ;  that 
is,  his  protection  was  extended 
over  the  highways  of  trade,  and 
all  crimes  committed  thereon  \vere 
punishable  in  his  courts.  The 
local  jurisdiction  of  the  hundred 
moots  was  everywhere  strength- 
ened by  the  authority  of  the 
king.  Thus  the  powerful  earls  ^  who  had  usurped  local  author- 
ity, and  the  outlaws  who  had  grown  numerous  during  the  dis- 
turbances of  the  Danish  wars,  were  reduced  to  submission. 

The  clergy,  too,  had  become  inefficient  during  these  wars, 
and  Duustan  seized  the  opportunity  to  encourage  the  monks  at 
the  expense  of  the  parish  clergy.  He  rebuilt  the  monasteries 
destroyed  by  the  Danes,  founded  forty  new  abbeys,  and  in- 
stalleil  monks  over  the  cathedrals  and  larger  churches.  He 
fought  earnestly  to  enforce  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  to 
make  them  zealous,  industrious,  and  temperate. 

Most  of  these  reforms  were  brought  about  during  the  reign 

of  the  able  King  Edgar  (0.">9-975).     His  successors  were  but 

weak  rulers,  and  adopted  the  policy  of  i)urchasing  inimu-    70.  Decline 

.  T.i  11x1  "  ^     e  ^  rof  the  West 

nity  from  Danish  raids  by  the  payment  of  large  sums  ot     gaxon  line 

tribute  money,  which  were  levied  upon  all  citizens  under     (975  1016) 

the  name  of  "  Danegeld  *'  —  the  first  general  tax  in  English 

history.    This  jtolicy  only  increased  the  greed  of  the  Danes,  and 

>  TIk'  fi>rm  rorl  was  hcinj:  ilisplact'd  by  the  form  fart  \uu\vr  the  iiiriiicnce  of 
the  Danish  cquivaUMit  term  Jurl. 


72  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

led  to  a  catastro})!)!'  (luiiii.n  the  reign  of  Etlielred,  called  the 
Unready  (that  is,  ''the  ill-advised"),  because  of  his  lack  of 
proper  rede,  or  wise  counsel.  This  king,  after  paying  tribute 
again  and  again,  finally  resorted  to  the  insane  policy  of  order- 
ing a  massacre  of  all  the  Danes  in  Wessex  on  Saint  Brice's  day 
in  the  year  1002.  To  avenge  this  terrible  deed,  Sweyn,  king 
of  Denmark,  invaded  and  laid  waste  the  territory  of  Wessex 
A.-S  C'/iron-  ^'^  ^^^^  following  year.  Ten  years  of  fighting  followed, 
ide,  1010  \^x\t  "  at  the  last  there  was  no  chief  who  would  assemble 
forces,  but  each  fled  as  he  best  might;  nor,  at  the  last,  would 
even  one  shire  help  another." 

In  1013  King  Ethelred  fled  to  Normandy,  the  lioiue  of  his 
queen  Emma,  and  Sweyn  became  sovereign  of  England.  He 
died,  however,  in  the  next  year,  and  the  Witans  of  ^Vessex, 
Mercia,  and  Northumbria  attempted  to  repudiate  the  authority 
of  his  son  Canute,  and  to  restore  Ethelred  and  his  son  Ed- 
mund Ironside  to  power.  A  long  struggle  ended  in  the 
disastrous  battle  of  Assandun  in  1016,  when  "  all  the  English 
nobles  were  slain "  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Edmund,  a  few- 
months  later,  Canute  became  undisputed  ruler  of  all  England.^ 
During  the  long  struggle  of  Egbert's  descendants  ag;ainst  the 
Danes,  a  most  important  social  and  economic  change  was  being 

„,    -    .  ,      wrought  throughout  rural  England  —  namely,  the  growth 
71.  Social  o  o  o  J)  o 

changes  of  a  landed  aristocracy,  at  the  expense  of  the  earlier  more 
(827-1000)  clemocratic  social  order.  In  the  first  place,  the  increased 
size  of  the  kingdom  forced  the  kings  to  create  great  provinces, 
or  earldoms,  the  rulers  of  which  had  to  have  ample  territories 
to  support  their  dignity,  and  ample  powers  of  jurisdiction  in 
order  to  preserve  order.  Again,  the  king's  thegns,  by  whose 
prowess  in  battle  his  throne  was  upheld,  received  from  time  to 

1  In  the  foregoing  account,  the  less  important  kings  of  Egbert's  line  have 
been  passed  over  without  mention  ;  but  in  order  that  the  student  may  view 
the  events  related  in  their  true  chronological  perspective,  he  should  examine 
carefully  the  list  of  English  monarchs  from  Egbert  to  Sweyn  on  the  opposite 
page. 


-WEST  S.VXON  AND  DANJSH 
KINGS  OF  ENGLAND 


EGBERT- 


Ttnnre  scalo,  50  yinirs  lo  one  Inch 


ETHELWULF 
T— 


ii?  3  ETHELBALD-^— 


! 


866 j^. 
871    — 


ETHELBERT 

ETHELRED  I 


^ ALFREg 


EDWARD 


Klfrlda=;=Earl  of  Flanders 


8  ATHELSIAN 


ROLF 
Pouod«T  of  tb«  11b* 
»11-9S7  . 


-  WUiiam  lL*  Cooqacror 


LMM  I. 


o"f '   EDWY 


EDMUND 

I         EDRED- 


"EDGAR 


a7a>'3      EOW^ARD. 


otyhtwmady 


1016^16     —EOMUNCr 


I03S<    g- 


20. 


SWEYN 

'C«Bqa<n<LEi«laad.  Ulf- 


Kdvanl  KthelliiK 

1. 1'*; "- 


EDWARi 


=  Kdil 


loee'^i 


nau-iiTE- t  RICHARO  III 

CANUTE     Mur»trvt"  '"»-'"=» 
V  tlia,  (jodwin 

Tostlg       LcoTwliie    Uyrth 


HAROLD 
'-HARDICANUTE 


:  HAROLD 


I::dRui  KtlK-liiig         I 
t^JJ^^^'f.iit    Margaret -MALCOLMiii. 

Matilda 
(p.  \r.) 


WILLIAM  I. 


WEST   SAXON   LINE 


DANISH   LINE 


73 


OUKES    OF 
NORMANDY 


74  co^' QUESTS  of  England 

time  large  gifts  of  land,  with  corresponding  powers  of  jurisdic- 
tion. The  smaller  landholders,  constantly  exposed  to  the  raids 
of  Scots,  Welsh,  or  Danes,  often  gave  up  their  lands  to  the 
nearest  thegn  and  thenceforth  occupied  them  as  his  tenants,  in 
return  for  his  powerful  protection.  If  a  ceorl  chose  to  remain 
independent,  a  single  raid  might  sweep  away  all  his  stock,  and 
force  him  to  become  the  rent-paying  tenant  of  some  landed 
proprietor  in  return  for  a  fresh  stock  of  oxen,  cows,  and  swine. 
Thus  the  order  of  thegnhood,  based  on  special  service  to  the 
king   and   extensive    property  in   land,   constantly  tended   to 

^         „.       depress  the  great  mass  of  simple  freemen  to  a  position  of 
Green,  Hist.         x        •  o  l  j. 

oftheEnq.     dependence.     "From  Alfred's  day  it  was  assumed  that 
People,  1. 4     ^^  xaoxi  could  exist  without  a  lord.     The  lordless  man 
became  a  sort  of  outlaw." 

The   life   on    a   large    estate,   or    ''  manor,"   was    still    very 
crude.     The  manor  house  of  the  lord  was  a  wooden  building 
containing  but  few  rooms.     The  entrance  was  through  a 
t    lif  °^^^'  po'^^^o^^  set  apart  for  the  shelter  of  animals,  and  the  other 
portions  consisted  of   a  kitchen  and  a  great  hall,  used 
alike  for  dining  room,  living  room,  and  sleeping  room.      This 
hall  contained  either  a  rough  stone  hearth  and  chimn,ey  at  one 
side,  or  a  central  hearth  only,  with  a  sort 
of  cupola  in  the  roof  for  the  escape  of  the 
smoke.     The  houses  of  the  tenants,  clus- 
tered in  a  "  vill "  (village),  were  generally 
of  clay  or  turf,  and  each  contained  but  one 
room,  used  in  common  by  man  and  beast. 
The  arable  fields  were  divided  into  parallel 
^O^^^^       strips    marked  by  turf  '^  balks,"  and  these 

were  assigned  as  fairly  as  possible  among 
Saxon  Lantkrn. 

the  various  tenants.  The  methods  of  farm- 
ing were  primitive:  at  least  one  third  of  the  cultivated  land 
was  left  untilled  every  year,  and  the  remainder  was  plowed  by 
the  cooperative  labor  of  the  villagers,  each  small  tenant  con- 


ANCLO-SAXONS    AfJAlNST    DANES  i  •> 

trilniting  one  or  moio  oxt-n  to  tho  tt":iiii  wliicli  tlia^'i^pd  the 
heavy  wocnlen  plow  throni,'li  the  roui,'li  and  imperfectly  drained 
soil.     The  estate   also  eontaiiu'd    uiaiiy   iiiliabitants  who    pos- 


Anolo-Saxox  Plow  Team. 
From  a  MS.  Saxon  calendar,  tenth  century. 

sessed  no  cattle,  but  served  as  shepherds,  swineherds,  hedgers, 
and  tlie  like.  Large  strips  of  waste  and  wooded  land,  utilized 
for  the  pasturage  of  vast  herds  of  swine,  separated  one  manor 
from  another. 

The  reign  of  Canute  (lOlG-lOSr))  includes  eighteen  years  of 
prosperity,  during  which  England  formed  part  of  his  great 
Anglo-Scandinavian  empire.  This  period  is  marked  by  73  Danish 
the  rapid  growth  of  English  commerce,  due  to  the  respite  England 
from  the  struggles  which  had  so  long  interfered  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  island,  and  to  the  enterprising  spirit  of  the  Danes. 
Commerce,  in  turn,  promoted  the  growth  of  towns.  In  East 
Anglia  some  three  hundred  Danish  names  of  cities  and  towns 
indicate  how  effective  was  the  colonization  and  settlement  of 
that  region.  P^ast  Anglia  with  southern  Northumbria  formed 
the  Danelaw,  or  district  where  Danish  law  in  part  replaee.l 
the  English  common  law ;  and  these  with  Mercia  and  Wessex 
formed  the  four  great  earldoms  into  which  Canute  divided 
his  English  kingdom.  Each  earl,  like  the  monarch,  niain- 
taine<l  a  large  stan<ling  army  of  hns-mrh  ("house-men,"  or 
retainers).  Canute  himself  at  first  acted  as  earl  over  Wessex, 
but  later  he  rai.sed  to  that  position  Godwin,  an  Englishman 
of  remarkable  abilities.  Thus  We.ssex  preserved  unbroken 
thf  tradition  of  English   natitmalitv. 


76  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

Tlie    Danish    power    depended    for    its   continuance   upon 

Canute's  wise  rule.     At  first  severe  in  forestalling  opposition, 

„,    „,  he  soon  adoi)ted  a  milder   attitude.     He   respected   the 

74.  The  ^  p     1  11-    n 

Danish  old    and    time-honored  tlivisions   of    the    country,    allied 

^^^^^  himself  with  his  English  subjects  by  marrying  the  widow 

of  Ethelred,  and  firmly  bound  the  church  to  his  interests  by 

his  piety  and  benevolence.     In  spite  of  the  strictness  of  his 

Letter  to         ^^^^^  ^^^^  the  heavy  taxes  which  he  found  himself  com- 

Canute's        pelled  to  lew,  he  may  be  said  to  have  fulfilled  faithfully 

jects,  his  pledge,  —  "'  I  have  vowed  to  God  to  lead  a  right  lite 

J02~  A.D.       ^j^  oji  things,  to  rule  justly  and  piously  my  realms  and 

my  subjects,  and  to  administer  just  judgment  to  all." 

His    rule  was    in   marked  contrast   to  the  barbarities   and 

brutalities  of  his  two  sons  and  successors,  Harold  and  Hardi- 

canute,  neither  of  whom  was  wise  enough  to  create  a  strong 

government  either  by  statesmanship  or  by  kindliness  of  rule. 

The  AVitan  of  Wessex  therefore  seized  the  opportunity  afforded 

by  Hardicanute's  death,  in  1042,  to  restore  the  line  of  Egbert 

to  the  throne,  and  chose  for  their  king  Edward  (called  the 

Confessor),  the  son  of  Ethelred  the  Unready. 

Edward   had  lived  in   Normandy  since  his    father's    flight 

thither  in  1013,  and  through  him  a  new  influence  from  the 

Continent  was  brought  to  bear  upon  English  institutions. 

of  the"^^     To  make  this  clear  we  must  briefly  sketch  the  events 

French  that  had   taken   place   across   the   Channel   during   the 

kingdom         y.      •  i  •    i 

Danish  period. 

Under  Charlemagne's  degenerate  descendants  his  empire 
had  become  divided  into  warring  fragments,  German,  Khenish, 
and  Prankish.  In  the  Frankish  portion,  various  petty  states 
had  arisen,  —  Francia,  Gascony,  Anjou,  Poitou,  etc.,  —  which 
soon  united  in  a  loosely  federated  monarchy  under  an  elective 
king.  None  of  the  kings,  however,  exerted  much  real  author- 
ity, and  none  of  them  were  able  to  protect  the  country  from 
the  raids  of  the  Northmen.     In  911  King  Charles  the  Simple 


aN(.;li>-s.\.\(ins  AciAiNsr  danks 


(•»m1o(1  to  Rolf  tlu'  Nortli- 
man  all  the  lower  Seine 
valley,  thus  creating  a 
new  Kreneli  state,  the 
iliicliy  of  Normandy. 
This  province  was  sub- 
ject to  the  French  crown 
under  the  feudal  system 
described  in  §0."3;  l)ut  so 
weak  was  the  royal  au- 
thority that  France  long 
remained  hardly  more 
than  a  geographical  ex- 
pression. It  was  the 
influence  of  this  weak,  di- 
vided type  of  government 
whitli  Edward  brought 
witli  him  to  Kiiglantl. 

The  Danish  period  also  saw  the  rise  of  a  flourishing  Scf>ttish 
kingdom  north  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  which  was  destined  to  he 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of  England.   76    Growth 
The  Scottish  tribes  from  Ireland,  which  had  gained  a  foot-         Scottish 
hold  in  ufuthern  Britain  about  the  time  of  the  Teutonic        kingdom 
invasion  of  the  south  ($  35),  after  a  long  series  of  struggles 
placed  one  of  their  own  rare  upon  the  ancient  throne  i»f  the 
Picts  (859).      The   English   monarchs   who   succeeded    Alfred 
greatly  strengthened  the  kingdom  thus  established,  by  granting 
to  various  Scottish   kings   extensive   territories   north   of  the 
Tweed,  reserving  to  England  only  an  ill-detined  overlordship. 


IHCHIKS   AM>   Ct>CNTIKS   OK   FrAJJCE 
.\BUUT    lOtJG. 


The  earlier  attacks  of  the  Vikings  were  directed  against  a 
poorly  consolidated   state,   in    which    were   to    be    found        -7    jum. 
neither  atb-ciuate  military  strength  nor  a  genuine  spirit  ™»»'y 

of  patriotism.    The  result  was  the  conquest  of  eastern  England 


78  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

by  the  Danes;  but  just  when  the  Anglo-Saxon  organization 
seemed  about  to  disappear  forever  from  Britain,  a  defender  ap- 
peared in  the  person  of  Alfred  of  Wessex.  This  great  monarch 
not  only  conserved  the  Anglo-Saxon  state  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
civilization,,  but  also  left  to  his  successors  a  nation  much 
advanced  in  political  organization,  in  intellectual  culture,  and 
in  ethical  standards.  Not  long  after  his  death,  all  England 
again  recognized  the  authority  of  the  native  raonarchs  Edward 
and  Athelstan.  Then  followed  a  period  of  gradual  decline  (re- 
tarded, however,  by  the  good  work  of  Archbishop  Dunstan),  at 
the  end  of  which  England  Avas  merged  into  the  Anglo-Scandi- 
navian empire  of  Canute.  But  the  latest  conquerors,  now 
Christianized  and  civilized,  proved  worthy  to  carry  on  the 
work  which  Alfred  had  begun.  Into  the  more  phlegmatic 
Anglo-Saxon  stock  the  Danes  infused  an  element  of  enter- 
prise, especially  in  commercial  matters;  and  to  this  their 
kinsmen  the  Normans  were  soon  to  add  an  intellectual  and 
refining  influence. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  How  far  does  the  success  of  the  Danes  throw  light  on  the 

topics  ggg^^  ^j  jjjg  jj^  England  upon   the  Teutonic  races?    ^(2)    What 

defects  in  the  military  and  political  conditions  of  England  invited 
these  attacks  ?  (3)  At  ^Yhat  times  in  the  year  would  they  meet 
with  the  most  success  ?  (4)  Just  what  is  meant  by  the  phrase 
"  Guthrum  accepted  Christianity,"  and  what  advantages  could 
Alfred  hope  to  gain  from  his  conversion  ?  (o)  What  motives 
probably  influenced  King  Athelstan  to  grant  the  dignity  of  thegn- 
hood  to  every  merchant  who  should  "  fare  thrice  across  the  sea  "  ? 
(6)  How  would  this  action  affect  social  life  in  England  ?  (7)  Give 
the  different  reasons  why  it  was  unwise  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Danes. 
(8)  State  the  difficulties  that  hampered  the  monarch  in  collecting 
the  Danegeld.  (9)  Distinguish  between  an  eorl  and  an  enrl. 
(10)  Why  was  it  undesirable  to  separate  the  plots  of  the  different 
tenants  of  a  manor  by  fences  or  hedges?  (11)  Why  did  not 
each  tenant  of  a  manor  plow  his  own  land  ?  (12)  AVhy  was  one 
third  of  the  land  left  untilled  every  year?  (13)  What  features  in 
the  early  life  of  the  Danes  tended  to  develop  their  genius  for  com- 
merce ? 


ANGLO-SAXONS    AdAINSl'    DANKS 


'!) 


(14)  A  Viking  craft.     (15)  The  caiver  of  Hasting.     (10)  The    Search 
Norlliinen   in   FraiRe.     (17)  The   Daue.s  in   Ireland.     (18)   Some    *°P"=8 
signiticant  anecdotes  about  Alfred  tiic  Great.     (19)  Make  a  map 
to  show  the  results  of  the  treaty  of  Wedmore.     (20)  Traditions  of 
Canute.     (*J1)  Au  account  of  a  Danish  foray. 


REFERENCES 


Secondary 
authorities 


See  map.  p.  40  ;  Gardiner,  Schnol  Athts,  maps  7,  8, !) ;  Mackinder,    Geography 
Britain  and  t/ir  Brititih  S^'as,  204-207  ;    Poole,  Historical  Atlan, 
map  xvi. ;  Keicli,  X>>r  Studentx^  Atlas,  maj)  4. 

Bright,  Jlixtnr;/  of  En<jlainl,  I.  5-21  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  Ilistori/. 
5(;-G7,  75-8t) ;  Hansome,  Advanced  Ilistorij,  51-75  ;  Greeii,  Short 
Jlistnnj,  44-^7.  —  Ilisttirtj  of  the  English  Penple,  hk.  i.  ch.  iii., — 
Conquest  of  England  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  Ilistori/  of  Em/land,  bk.  i. 
ehs.  v.-vii.  ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  ch.  iii. ;  Lingard.  History  of 
Enijland,  chs.  iv.-vi.  ;  Church,  Early  Britain,  chs.  xviii.-xxviii. ; 
Ramsay,  Foundations  of  England,  I.  chs.  xiv.-xxvi.  xxxi.  ;  John.son, 
The  Xormans  in  Europe,  chs.  ii.  x.  xii.  ;  Jewett,  Story  of  the  Xor- 
inans  ;  Pearson,  England  durimj  the  Early  and  Middle  Ayes.  I. 
1<;.J_181  ;  Freeman,  Xorinun  Conquest,  vols.  I.  II.,  —  Old  Enylish 
History,  chs.  viii.-x.  ;  Traill,  Social  Emjland.  I.  141-140,  I'.t."}- 
22M  ;  Wright,  History  of  Domestic  Manners,  chs.  i.-v.  ;  Hughes, 
Alfred  the  Great  ;  Pluminer,  Life  and  Times  <f  Alfnd  the  (Jreat  ; 
Pauli.  Alfred  the  Great ;  Besant,  Story  of  Kiny  Alfred ;  Powell, 
Alfred  the  Great  and  William  the  Conqueror;  Lawless,  Ireland, 
ch.s.  vii.  viii.  ;  Lang,  History  if  Scothtnd,  I.  chs.  iii.  iv.  ;  Cunning- 
ham. Growth  (f  fJnylish  Industry,  I.  87-94  ;  Brooke.  English 
Literature  from  the  Beginning  to  the  Xorman  Conquest  ;  II.  Taylor, 
The  English  Constitution,  I.  ch.  v. 

Colby,  Seh'Ctions  from  the  Sources,  nos.  8-10;  Kendall,  Source- 
Book,  ch.  ii. ;  Powell,  Alfred  and  the  Danes  ;  Anglo-Saxon  ( 'hronicle, 
787-1042;  (Jec  ami  Hardy,  Documents  ff  Church  History,  nos.  x.- 
xii.  See  New  Kngiand  History  Teaciiers'  A.s.sociation,  Syllabus. 
2;]">-2;]7, —  Historical  Sources,  145-147. 

Hughes.  The  Scouring  of  the  White  Horse  ;  Tliackeray,  King 
Canute  ;  Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  l>y  English  Poets, 
18-25. 


Sources 


niustrative 
work! 


CHAPTER  VL 


ANGLO-SAXONS   AGAINST   NORMANS   (1042-1087) 

The  new  monarch  owed  his  title  of  "  the  Confessor "'  to  his 

simple-minded,  saintlike    character.       Gentle   by  nature,  reli- 

78.  Charac-   gious  by  training,  esteemed  by  his  followers  to  be  a  saint 

terandpol-        ^  seer,  Edward  turned  his  thoughts  naturally  toward 
icy  of  'the  '  . 

Confessor"    the   other   world,   and    left   his    political    policy   to   be 

shaped  largely  by  more  practical  and  efficient  men.     Such  a 
man  was  Earl  Godwin,  whom  Canute  had  selected  as  ruler  of 

Wessex ;  a  man  of  states- 
manlike ability,  of  great 
wealth,  of  energetic,  am- 
bitious character,  and  of 
wide  experience  in  affairs. 
Edward's    life,  in    Nor- 
mandy made  him  familiar 
with  the  idea  of  a  mon- 
archy divided  into  great 
semi-independent    fiefs, 
and  it  was  therefore  natural  that  he  should   leave  Godwin 
in  possession  of  Wessex,  and  give  large  powers  to  two  other 
earls,  Siward  in  the  north,  and  Leofric  in  mid-Britain.     The 
conditions   thus  created  were  as   harmful  in  England    as   in 
France,  for   the   rivalry  which   later  developed   between   the 
houses  of   Godwin  and  Leofric  weakened  England  when  she 
most  needed  strength. 

At  Edward's  accession  he  found  little  that  was  congenial  to 
him  in  his  rude   and   uncultivated   English    subjects  ;  and   a 

80 


Penny  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 

Found  near  the  battle  ground  of  Senlac, 
in  1876. 


ANGLO-SAXONS    AdAlNsr    NoK.MANS  81 

bloodless  "Xornian  romiuest  "  bv  tlie  j^rasping  foreign  favor- 
ites wlio  folh)we(l  him  to  England  seemed  to  he  threatened. 
He  placed  Normans  in  nearly  all  the  positions  of  trust,        79    Earl 

and  even  gave  to  a  Norman  the  artdibishopric  of  Can-   Godwin  and 

^  '■  the  Nor- 

terbury.       Hut   (iodwin,  although   he    had    seen  foreign  mans 

service  under  Canute  and  had  allied  himself  with  the  Danish 

king  by  marriage,  now  championed  the  policy  of  England  for 

Englishmen. 

Unfortunately,  Godwin's  power  for  good  in  the  land  was 
weakened  by  his  ambition.  l>y  heaping  honors  and  lands 
upon  his  own  sons,  even  when  they  proved  incapable  and 
untrustworthy,  he  weakened  his  popularity  among  the  English ; 
and  the  Normans  at  Edward's  court  of  course  intrigued 
against  him.  In  1051  the  citizens  of  Dover  mobbed  a  body  of 
Edward's  Norman  friends  who  were  on  their  way  to  the  Con- 
tinent. Godwin  defended  their  action,  refused  obedience  when 
ordered  by  Edward  to  j)unish  them,  and  was  outlawed  in  con- 
sequence. In  lOyj  lie  returned  with  a  strong  force  and  was 
welcomed  enthusiastically  by  the  Londoners,  and  his  Norman 
enemies  were  banished  in  their  turn.  Even  the  foreign  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  Jurai^ges,  was  expelled  from  his  office 
to  make  way  for  an  P>nglishman,  Stigand.  Godwin  died  a  few 
months  after  his  return  to  power.  Edward  turned  with  attach- 
ment and  respect  to  Godwin's  more  genial  son,  Harold,  made 
him  his  chief  minister,  and  intrusted  to  him  all  the  details  of 
government. 

Though  Harold  was  a  mail  of  courage,  of  intellectual  ability, 

of  administrative  genius,  he  was  only  "the  ablest   man  of  an 

unprogressive    race."      Under   him    England    enjoyi-d    a    80.  Harold 

,      .    .  ,  .^  ,  .,  i.1        1        1  Godwin  8  son 

j)eriod  of   internal    prosperity,  while  on    tlie    Ixuders    a  ^^^^  ^^^ 

series  of  successful  expeditions  resulted  in  the  subjuga-      succession 

tion  of  the  Welsh,  whose  rulers  became  vas.sals  of  the  Englisli 

monarch.    It  is  true  that,  like  his  father,  Harold  employed  the 

great  earldoms  as  a  means  of  aggrandizing  his  own  family; 


82 


CONQUESTS    OF   ENGLAND 


yet  his  love  for  justice  was  so  great  that  when  Northumbria 
revolted  against  his  brother  Tostig's  tyrannous  rule  and 
deposed  him  in  1065,  Harold  supported  the  action  of  the 
rebels,  and  allowed  them  to  receive  as  their  earl  Morkar,  the 
grandson  of  Leofric. 

This  revolt  was  hardly  settled  before  the  approaching  death 
of  Edward  raised  the  question  of  the  succession  to  the  throne. 
Some  years  before,  Edward  had  given  his  cousin's  son,  Wil- 
liam of  Normandy,  some  reason  to  hope  that  he  might 
succeed  to  the  English  throne.  Later  the  weak-willed  king 
fixed  upon  his  nephew  Edward  (son  of  Edmund  Ironside)  as 
his  successor;  but  the  latter  died  in  1057,  leaving  only  two 
minor  children,  Edgar  (called  the  Etheling)  and  Margaret. 
King  Edward  then  turned  to  Harold  as  the  only  Englishman 

fit  to  govern  the  na- 
tion on  his  decease, 
and  on  his  deathbed 
he  named  the  latter 
to  the  Witan  as  his 
successor.  By  Eng- 
lish custom'  the  suc- 
cession was  limited 
to  a  grown  son  or 
brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding monarch,  but 
in  default  of  such  person  the  Witan  were  probably  justified 
in  making  a  fiiesli  choice.  They  chose  Harold,  as  Edward  had 
suggested ;  and  on  the  same  day  that  Harold  was  crowned, 
Edward  was  buried  in  the  abbey  church  which  he  himself  had 
founded  at  Westminster,  just  west  of  London. 

William,  duke  of   Normandy,  who  now  laid   claim   to  the 
81.  Wil-        crown  of  England,  was  the  fifth  in  descent   from  that 

liamofNor-  Rolf  the  Northman  who  won  the  Seine  valley  from  the 
mandy  '' 

(1027-1087)  king  of  France  (§  75).     He  succeeded  to  the  duchy  of 


Westminster  Abbey. 


AN<;i,tuSAX<>Ns    ACAINSI-    NORMANS  83 

Xonnaiuly  at  seven  years  of  a.i^e,  and  spent  all  his  youth  and 
young  nianhoiHl  in  a  series  of  struggles,  first  with  his  own 
unruly  vassals,  and  later  with  the  count  of  the  neighboring 
province  of  Anjou.  ^foreover,  he  was  compelled  continually 
to  combat  the  secret  or  open  hostility  of  his  sovereign,  the 
king  of  France. 

Thus  by  hard  experience  he  learned  the  lessons  of  subtlety, 
shrewdness,   deliberation,    and    endurance.       Under    ids    rule, 
Xornuuidy  became  one  of  the  most  strongly  governed  and  pow- 
erful provinces  in    France.     "Throughout  his  career,  we       Frtpnum, 
atlmire  in    him  the  embodiment,  in  the  highest   degree    ^    Gorman 

"  "  Conqutst,  \  . 

that  nature  will  allow,  of  the  fixed  purpose  and  the  un-  i'.r 

bending  will.  Utterly  unscrupulous,  though  far  from  unprin- 
cipled, taking  no  pleasure  in  wrongdoing  or  oppression  for  its 
own  sake,  ...  he  yet  never  shrank  from  force  or  fraud,  from 
wrong  or  bloodshed  or  oppression,  when  they  seemed  to  him 
the  straightest  ])aths  to  accomplish  his  purpose."  Such  was 
the  man  who,  long  before  Harold's  election,  had  set  his  heart 
on  l>eeoming  king  of  England. 

As  early  as  lO.")!,  during  (Godwin's  e.vile,  William  visited 
England  and  obtained  from  the  too  complaisant  Edward  a 
])romise  that  he  should  succeed  to  the  crown  of  England.  82    In- 

A  few  years  later,  accident  gave  ])im  another  advantage  ;    tji^e  E^n^iigh 
for  Earl    Harold   wa.s   thrown    by  shipwreck   upon   the  crown 

coast  of  Ponthieu.  The  wily  Norman  secured  his  ransom  from 
the  count  of  that  district  (his  vassal)  by  the  payment  of 
money  and  land.  Harold,  now  completely  in  the  power  of  his 
secret  enemy,  was  compelled  to  take  a  solemn  oath  recognizing 
William's  claims  to  tlie  English  throne,  and  wa.s  also  induced 
to  accept  knighthood  at  his  hands,  probably  with  its  attenrlant 
oath  of  homage  and  fealty  (§  93). 

Hence  William  had  .some  plausible  grounds  Im-  urging  his 
really  Him.sy  claim  to  the  throne  of  England.  Ar«-ording  to 
the  feudal  system  of  E\iroj)e,  he  asserted  that  he  was  HaroM's 


84 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


overlord  ;  to  the  friends  of  Edward  the  Confessor  he  quoted 
the  king's  early  promise  to  him ;  to  the  devout  churchmen  of 
both  England  and  the  Continent  he  magnified  the  crime  of  Earl 
Godwin  in  deposing  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  dwelt 
on  the  sanctity  of  Harold's  oath  renouncing  the  crown ;  to  the 
sticklers  for  legality  in  England  he  could  denounce  the  revolu- 
tionary ii-regular  choice  of  Harold;  and  to  military  adventurers 
everywhere  he  could  magnify  the  opportunities  for  plunder 
and  personal  aggrandizement.  By  thus  joining  a,  large  num- 
ber of  ciphers,  he  delud'ed  many  into  believing  that  the  result 
was  a  real  quantity. 


Ships  of  William  the  Conquerok. 

Restored  from  tapestry  made  in  England  for  William's  bi-Qther, 
Odo  of  Bayeiix. 

I^  the  early  summer  of  1066,  William  gathered  his  vassals 
and  allies  from  Flanders,  h-om  Ponthieu,  from  Brittany,  from 
Sicily,  and  from  all  the  other  regions  whither  the  Norman 
dual  inva-      blood  or  the  Norman  spirit  had  penetrated,  and  prepared 
Bion  (1066)     ^Q  g^^-j  £^^  England.     To  meet  this  army  of  professional 
lighters,  Harold  gathered  a  large  body  of  land  and  naval  forces, 
mostly  recruited  from  the  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  therefore  un- 
trained and  undisciplined.     William  was  delayed  by  the  diffi- 
culty of  securing  transportation  and  supplies  for  his  array,  and 
by  contrary  winds ;  so  that  for  four  months  the  English  troops 
and  fleet  waited  for  the  invasion  which  failed  to  come.     About 
the  middle   of   September,  large  numbers  of  Harold's  troops 


ANCI.n-S.W'oNS    ACAINSI'    NkKMANS 


80 


(lisbamled  and  it'tunu'd  to  the  fields  tu  j,':itlier  ihcir  uvei-rii.t- 
liarvests,  ami  liis  wt-aktMifd  Heel  n-tin-il  fnnii  tli.-  soiitluTii 
coast  to  liOiuloii. 

MeanwliiK'  JlaroKl's  lnotli.-r  Tosti^,'  srizt'd  tliis  occasion  to 
recover  liis  forfeited  earldom  of  Nortluunbria,  with  the  aid  of 
his  reUitive,  tlie  king  of  Norway.  Eight  days  before  William's 
landing  in  England,  Edwin  and  Morkar,  the  earls  of  Mercia 
and  Northumbria,  were  defeated  by  the  Norwegian  king,  who 
sailed  nji  the   JIumber  and  sent  a  body   of  troops  to  eaiiture 

York;    and    Harold    was 


obliged  to  hnrry  north- 
ward at  the  very  moment 
when  'William 's  landing 
was  daily  exjiected  ujion 
the  southern  coast. 

By  an  extraordinarily 
vapid  march,  Harold 
reached       York      in        84    Har- 

time    to    check    the    old « costly 

victory  in 

advance    of   tlie   in-       the  north 

vading  forces.  At  the  bat- 
tle of  Stamford  liridge,  on 
Sej)tember  l'.">,  the  traitor- 
ous Tostig  and  his  ally, 
the  king  of  Norway,  were 
both  slain :  the  invaders 
withdrew,  and  Harold  was 
flee  to  turn  south  again. 

He    did    not    arrive    in 
time  to  ojtpose  Williiuu's 
landing,  however,  for,  on 
SeptemUM-  L'8,   the   latter 
disembarked  his  troo|ts  at  I'evensey  with  no  opixjsition.     Wil- 
liam advanced  northeast  through  Sussex  with  great  delilieration, 


IIVICC 


\M>  Williams  M  vk.  hks. 


86 


OONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


so  that  Harold,  luinTing  from  York  and  collecting  forces  from 

the  southern  and  eastern  shires  as  he  came,  was  able  to  face 

him  on  a  lield  (later  called  Senlac)  seven  miles  fi'om  the  town 

of  Hastings  on  October  14.     Harold's  advisers  urged  him  not  to 

fight,  but  to  starve  William  out  by  laying  waste  the  country  ; 

but  Harold,  with  true  British  pluck,  declared  that  he  had  "been 

set  to  protect  his  people,  not  to  destroy  them."     He  therefore 

ranged  his  militia  upon  the  crest  of  a  ridge  crossing  the  road 

along  which  William  was  advancing  toward  London. 

At  the  highest  point  on  this  ridge  w^ere  stationed  the  leaders 

of  the  host,  grouped  about  the  standard  and  encircled  by  a  ring 

85.  Battle     of  hus-carls,  whose  interlocked   shields  formed  a  strong 

°l  ^^^^^^^^^   line  of  defense.     As  the  Norman  forces,  consisting  of  both 
(Oct.  14,  . 

1066)  cavalry  and  archers,  advanced  to  the  attack,  they  were 

checked  by  flights  of  javelins  and  stones  hurled  by  the  Eng- 
lish ;  and  then,  as  the  attacking  columns  reached  the  battle 

line,  they  met  a  storm  of 
blows  from  heavy  battle- 
axes  that  would  cut  off  a 
horse's  head  at  one  blow. 
Although  William's  forces 
had  the  advantage  in  in- 
telligence, mobility,  and 
discipline,  Harold's  were 
stronger  in  numbers  and 
in  position,  and  stoutly 
resisted  the  repeated 
charges  of  the  iSTorman 
cavalry  up  the  difficult 
slope;  but,  acting  wholly 
on  the  defensive,  they 
were  unable  to  inflict  serious  harm  upon  the  enemy. 

After  the  battle  had  lasted  from  nine  in  the  morning  until 
late  in  the  afternoon,  William's  cavalry,  suffering  an  apparently 


C    .Norman  heaij.arined  foot  ^~ 


Battle  of  Hastincj.s. 
Positions  at  the  betjiiiiiiiiij  of  the  battle. 


AN(1L(>-SAX()NS    AC.AlNSr    NoIIMANS  87 

(lisustntiis  ropiilse,  inettMidi'd  Hij^lit;  tlio  Miidiscipliiu'd  troops 
on  Harold's  right,  wing  broke  thrir  lim-  of  d«'fen.se  and  ruslicil 
iu  pursuit  of  the  fleeing  Normans  in  a  disorderly  iiioh;  and  it 
was  an  easy  matter  for  the  Normans  to  turn,  ride  down  their 
disordered  pursuers,  and  make  a  flank  attack  on  Harold's 
jjositiou  through  the  gaj)  thus  left  open.  Even  so,  the  battle 
remained  undecided  for  hours,  until  the  archers,  instructed  by 
AVilliam,  directed  their  shafts  over  the  heads  of  the  line  of 
hus-carls  so  that  they  fell  into  the  center  of  the  struggling 
nuiss  about  the  king.  A  chance  arrow  pierced  Harold's  eye  and 
struck  him  down.  Two  of  his  brothers  had  already  fallen, 
and  all  leadership  was  now  lost ;  the  English  broke  in  rout, 
and  William  remained  master  of  the  field. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  cowardice  or  mere  in- 
efficiency and  disunion  among  the  English  shaped  the  course 
of  events  after  Hastings.     Certain  it  is  that  Edwin  and    86   Corona- 
^lorkar  failed  wholly  to  assist  Harold  during  this  battle,  Ji°J^  i^ , J^jJ; 
or  to  art  promptly  after  his  fall.    The  Witenagemote,  too,       25, 1066) 
although  it  immediately  elected  Edgar  the  Etheling  king,  made 
no  preparations  for  a  vigorous  resistance  to  AVilliam.      Instead 
of  advancing  upon  London,  the  Concpieror  spent  several  weeks 
in  gaining  possession  of  Kent,  Surrey,  lierkshiro,  and  Hert- 
fordshire.     He   thus   isolati'd    the  capital   and   overawed  the 
country  districts. 

This  policy  served  its  intended  jturpose.  The  puppet  king 
Edgar,  with  his  bishops  and  his  leading  noblemen,  quickly 
lost  heart  and  united  in  offering  the  crown  to  William.  On 
Christmas  day,  lOGd,  William  was  crowned  by  the  Archbishop 
of  York  in  Westmin.ster  .\l>bey,  his  election  having  been  ratified 
by  the  acclamations  of  the  assend)led  multitude.  Thus  he  was 
able  to  claim,  not  only  that  he  was  the  rightful  heir  of  Edward 
the  Confes.sor,  but  al.so  that  he  was  the  choice  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  state,  of  the  chundi,  and  of  the  last  heir  of 
Egbert's  lin*-.      To  maintain  the  liction  of  legality,  he  solemnly 


88  CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 

repeated  the  ancient  coronation  pledges  to  defend  the  church, 
rule  justly,  make  good  laws,  and  abolish  evil  customs. 

For  four  years  after  the  battle  of  Hastings,  William's  ener- 
gies were   largely  spent  in  reducing   to  submission   the   two 
87.  Pacifi-     thirds   of    England   which    at    his    coronation    did   not 
cation  of        acknowledge  his  sway.     His   first   expedition,    in   1068, 
(1068-1070)   was   directed    against   the   southwest,    where    adherents 
of  the  family  of  Godwin  were  plotting  against  him.     Follow- 
ing the   precedents  of   the  English    monarchy,  William  sum- 
moned the    militia   (a  risky  experiment),   overran   the  entire 
district  of  Dorsetshire,  and  finally  captured  Exeter  and  built 
there  a  castle  to  overawe  its   inhabitants.     The  reduction  of 
Cornwall  followed  immediately. 

Then  he  turned  to  the  north,  where  Earls  Edwin  and  jSIorkar, 
aided  by  Edgar  the  Etheling,  the  Scotch,  the  Welsh,  and  the 
Danes,  organized  several  uprisings.    Three  several  times  was 
William  compelled  to  lead  his  forces  to  York  during  the  years 
1068  and  1069.     The  third  time,  he  laid  waste  the  whole  dis- 
trict from  York  to  the  river  Tees,  causing  indescribable  suffer- 
ing.    "  The  men   who    had  joined  in  the   revolt   were   slain. 
Gardiner,       The  storcd-up  crops,  the  plows,  the  carts,  the  oxen  and 
Student  s       g^eep  were  destroyed  by  fire.     INIen,  women,  and  children 
100  dropped  dead  of  starvation,  and   their    corpses   lay  un- 

buried  in  the  wasted  fields."  Then  a  hard  winter's  march 
brought  him  to  Chester,  where  early  in  1070  the  last  rebellious 
stronghold  was  taken,  and  the  submission  of  the  entire  north 
was  secured.  A  later  revolt  in  the  fen  country,  under  Here- 
ward,  "  the  Last  of  the  English,"  and  a  contest  with  King 
Malcolm  Canmore  of  Scotland  (who  had  married  Margaret,  the 
sister  of  Edgar  the  Etheling)  served  only  to  show  how  firm  was 
his  position. 

"William's  policy  toward  his  conquered  subjects  was  a  wise 

?•     ^r^'^y     mixture  of  leniency  and    severity.      As   he    claimed   to 
of  the  Con- 
queror be  not  a  usurper  but  a  lawful  king,  he  treated  as  trai- 


ANc;Ln-SAX(»NS    Ai.AlNSl'    .NOKMANS  S'.l 

ti>rs  all  those  who  had  atlht'ii'd  to  Harold,  and  declared 
their  lauds  to  be  fort'eited ;  but  the  estates  of  those  who 
submitted  to  him  i>iomptly  were  restored  to  them  on  pay- 
ment of  a  tine.  This  shrewd  policy  enabled  him  to  adjust 
anew  the  conditions  of  land  tenure  (described  in  the  next 
chapter),  and  to  raise  large  sums  of  mouey  for  his  imme- 
diate needs.  In  cases  where  Englishmen  remained  hostile 
he  granted  their  lands  to  one  of  his  Norman  barons  and 
then  left  the  new  owner  to  make  good  his  claims  by  force, 
thus  getting  rid  of  the  burden  of  conquering  the  more  remote 
districts. 

To  all  the  warriors  of  his  invading  host  "William  made  gen- 
erous grants  of  land.  This  he  could  well  afford  to  do,  for, 
besides  the  lauds  contiscated  from  rebels,  he  held  the  ancient 
crown  lands  and  the  extensive  possessions  of  Godwin's  sons ; 
but  he  took  care  that  the  tenure  of  land  should  depend  upon 
the  regular  payment  of  dues.  Grants  to  his  followers  were 
located  almost  wholly  in  the  agricultural  districts;  the  im- 
portant towns  remained  permanent  portions  of  the  king's 
demesnes. 

As  William  advanced  through  the  country  and  reduced  the 
various  districts  to  submission,  he  seized  upon  every  position 
offering  important  military  advantages,  and  planted  tliere      gg    Boyal 
a   fortress    or   rudimentary   castle  to  command  the   sur-  castles 

rounding  region.  In  every  considerable  town  he  did  the 
same,  for  the  purpose  of  overawing  its  citizens.  Those  nio.st 
hastily  erected  were  of  wood,  but  later  they  were  replaced 
with  solid  stone.  The  castles  had  usually  two  parts:  (1)  the 
keep,  or  tower,  a  massive,  lofty  .struetnre;  {'2)  clustered 
closely  about  it  a  group  of  insignificant  structures  of  wood  or 
rough  rubble,  serving  for  the  <lwellings  of  the  garrison  in 
times  of  peace.  From  the  castle  the  garri.son  could  sally 
forth  to  harry  tlie  surntunding  neighlM)rhood,  on  the  least 
sign  of  disalTection;  if  attacked  by  a  superior  force,  it  could 


90 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


retire  witMn  the  keep  and 
without  much  danger  en- 
dure a  long  siege. 

The  Tower  of  London, 
whicli  guards  the  ap- 
proach to  the  city  by 
way  of  the  Thames,  may 
be  taken  as  a  typical  ex- 
ample. The  White  Tower, 
begun  by  the  Conqueror 
in  the  year  1078,  is  a 
massive  keep  about  one 
hundred  feet  square,  with 
walls  of  rubble  fifteen 
feet  thick.  Its  small  and 
high  windows  and  sin- 
gle door  could  be  easily 
guarded,  even  if  the  moat 
and  outer  defenses  had 
been  taken;  and  no  be- 
sieging force  of  the  eleventh  century  could  hope  to  reduce 
it  except  by  starving  out  the  garrison. 

William's  political  and  ecclesiastical  reforms  are  treated  in 
the  following  chapter;  aside  from  these  the  latter  part  of  his 

^^    «,        r   I'eign,  like  his  early  life,  was  occupied  with  struggles  to 
90.  Close  of         *   '  J         '  L  f& 

the  reign  maintain  his  authority  over  turbulent  vassals.  He  spent 
much  time  on  the  Continent,  where  the  greed  of  his 
sons  to  share  his  dominions  before  his  death  led  to  numer- 
ous intrigues  and  revolts  ;  and  he  returned  to  England  only  to 
find  the  men  whom,  he  had  made  rich  and  powerful  engaged  in 
plots  to  repudiate  his  authority.  Curiously  enough,  he  found 
that  he  must  look  to  the  English  people  for  support  against  the 
men  of  his  own  race,  and  with  their  aid  he  again  and  again 
crushed  out  formidable  revolts.     Thus,  by  his  wise  and  vigor- 


The  White  Towek  (Keep  of  the  Tower 
OF  London). 


(1087) 


AN(;L<)-SAXi>NS    AdAINSl'    NuKMANS 


'Jl 


Oils   iiioasiiros.  William  at   liis  doatli   in  1(iS7  left  En^'laiul  a 

strung   state,    well    ]ia(itie(l    and    well    administered;    Imt    he 

had  also  created  what  Mr. 
Freeman  has  called  "one 
of  the  most  tremendous 
tyrannies  on  record."  As 
a  contemporary  put  it :  '•  he 
caused  castles  to  be 
built  and  oppressed  the 
poor.  ...  lie  was  given  to 
avarice,  and  greedily  loved 
gain.  .  .  .  The  rich  eom- 
plaiiied  and  the  poor  mur- 
mured, but  he  was  so  sturdy 
that  he  recked  nought  of 
them ;  they  must  will  all 
that  the  king  willed  if  they 
\oiild  live,  or  would  keep 
I  heir  lands,  or  would  hold 
their   possessions,  or   would 

Statik  ..f  William  thk  Conqueror.    I'g  maintained  in  their  riglits. 
At  Falaise.  his  birthplace.  s,\as\  that  any   man   should 

so  exalt  himself,  and  carry  himself  in  his  })ride  over  all  I  " 


A.-S.  CTiron- 
iclc,  1087 


England  l)eeame  independent  of  Danish  c(mtrol  under 
Edward  the  (.'oufessor  in  104L',  but  it  suffered  greatly  from 
quarrels  between  Edward's  foreign  friends  and  his  native  gj  g^^ 
advisers,  and  also  from  jealousies  that  s})rang  up  among  mary 
the  natives  themselves.  The  loosely  organized  kingdom 
therefore  became  an  easy  prize  to  the  strong  arm  of  William 
of  Normandy,  who  rewarded  his  followers  with  its  richest  and 
fairest  estates.  I5y  these  and  other  measures  William  gave  to 
English  institutions  the  imi)ress  of  Ct)ntinental  feudalism. 
The  work  of  the  Teutonic  pioneers  from  the  Baltic  shores  was 


92 


CONQUESTS   OF   ENGLAND 


done ;  and  the  gentler  southern  civilization  influenced  by 
Roman  tradition  henceforth  shaped  English  development. 
Yet  though  England  was  changed,  she  was  not  transformed  ! 
The  enduring  force  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  character  was  shown 
in  the  partial  continuance  of  the  English  language,  the  English 
common  law,  English  territorial  divisions,  and  English  politi- 
cal institutions.  Furthermore,  the  work  of  Alfred  and  of 
Dunstan,  and  the  broadening  effect  of  intercourse  with  the 
enterprising  Danes,  helped  the  English  people  to  receive  and 
absorb  without  violent  change  the  more  advanced  civilization 

of  the  Normans. 

TOPICS 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


(I)  What  national  change  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  Edward 
tlie  Confessor  removed  the  seat  of  government  from  Wincliester  to 
Westminster?  (2)  What  advantages  could  Pope  Alexander  11. 
hope  to  gain,  by  espousing  William's  cause?  (3)  Did  the  battle 
of  Hastings  illustrate  the  law  of  "the  survival  of  the  fittest"? 

(4)  Cite   other   examples   of   victories   won   by   pretended  flight. 

(5)  Can  you  account  for  the  inefficiency  of  the  Witan  at  this 
period  ?  (6)  How  would  William's  conception  of  the  rights  of  a 
king  differ  from  Harold's  ?  (7)  What  grounds  had  Tostig's  ally 
for  invading  England  ?  (§)  Indicate,  with  the  aid  of  a  topographi- 
cal map,  why  castles  were  placed  at  Hastings.  Dover,  Ex,eter,  Nor- 
wich, Bristol,  Winchester,  London,  York,  and  Lincoln.  (9)  Why 
were  the  Cambridgeshire  fens  the  latest  district  in  England  to  be 
conquered  ?     (10)   Was  Hereward  a  true  patriot  ? 

(II)  Earl  Siward  and  Malcolm  Canmore  as  depicted  in  Shake- 
speare's Macbeth.  (12)  Description  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
(13)  The  story  of  Harold's  oath  to  AVilliam.  (14)  The  Bayeux 
tapestry,  and  its  value  to  historians.  (15)  The  relation  of  Corn- 
wall to  the  English  crown  since  the  days  of  William  I.  (16)  Trace 
in  the  coronation  ceremony  of  King  Edward  VII.  the  remains  of  the 
ancient  election  of  a  monarch  by  the  Witan.  (17)  Archers  in 
battle,     (18)  William's  fleet. 


REFERENCES 

Geography  See  maps,  pp.   40,   77,   04  ;   Gardiner,    School   Atlas,   map   10  ; 

Hughes,  Geographt/  in  British  History,  chs.  v.-vii.  ;  Reich,  Nni} 
Students''  Atlas,  maps  .'i,  7  ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  maps  xvi.  liv. 


AN(iL()  SAXONS    AtiAlNsr    N<>KMANS  MH 

Brifiht,  History  iif  Emjland,  I.  21-28,  40-'>5  ;  Ganliiu-r,  StmhnCs  Secondary 
History,  Ht)-1(M,  114  ;  Kansoiiu-,  Advumed  Hixlury,  7tt-102  ;  (ireen,  *"i'»°""«'« 
Short  History.  67-8'.»,  —  History  of  the  Emjlish  People,  bk.  i.  cli.  iv., 
bk.  ii.  cli.  i. ;  Powell  and  Tout.  History  of  Eiujlund.  48-4!!) ;  Hrewer, 
Student's  Hume,  chs.  iv.  v.  ;  Linpinl,  History  of  Enylnnd.  I.  chs. 
vi.  viii.  ;  Church,  Early  Britain,  chs.  xxix.-xxxiii.  ;  IJanisay, 
Foundations  of  Enijhind,  I.  ih.  xxvii.  ;  II. oh.  i.  ;  Freeman.  Xonnan 
Coniiuest,  vols.  II.-IV., —  Short  History  of  the  Xorman  Conquest, 
chs.  i.-xii.,  — Old  Enylish  History,  chs.  xi.-xiii.,  —  William  the  Con- 
queror; Johnson,  Xormans  in  Europe,  chs.  viii.  xii.  ;  Kdwards, 
Wale."!,  ch.  iv. ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  I.  ch.  v.  ;  H.  Taylor, 
Enijlish  Constitution,  I.  228-270;  Powell,  Alfred  the  Great  and 
William  the  Conqueror;  Oman,  Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
ch.  ii.  ;  Creasy,  Fifteen  Derisive  Battles,  ch.  viii. ;  Clark,  Mediceval 
Military  Architecture,  I.  chs.  iv.  v.  ;  M.  Creighton,  Historical  Lec- 
tures and  Addres.ies,  241-2»i0 ;  Fowke,  The  Bayeiix  Tapestry ; 
Pollock  and  Maitiand,  History  of  Enylish  Lam,  I.  hk.  i.  ch.  iii. 
See  Xew  Kngland  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  2.>8, 
230. 

Colby,  Sf  lections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  11-1  "I;  Kendall,  Sourci-    Sources 
Book.  nos.  13-1(5;   Henderson,  Select  Historical  Documents  of  (he 
Middh-  Ayes,  7,  8  ;  Anylo-Saxon  Chronicle,  1042-1087  ;    William 
of  Malme.sbun,',  History  of  English  Kings,  bk.  iii.  ;  Gee  and  Hardy. 
Documents  of  Church  History,  nus.  xiii.-xvii. 

Bulwer,  Harold,  the  Last  of  the  Saxon  Kings  ;  Henty,  Wnlf  the    Illustrative 
Saxon  ;  C.  Kingsley.  Herein, mt,  the  Las/  of  the  English  ;  Macfar- 
lane,  The  Camp  of  Refuge;  Tennyson,  Harold  (a  drama). 


1        Lonsritwde  West       2         from  Grct-nwiih      0  K-^t 


94 


ciiArrKK  VII. 

THE  FEUDAI-IZATION  (»F   ENGLISH   INSTITrili  i\S 

(A)    The  Fki'dalized  State 

FoK  at  least  three  centuries  before  the  Norman  conquest 

all  the    politieal  and  social    institutions   of    western    Europe 

tended   to   shape   themselves   aceordinpr   to    a    common 

^  92    English 

model,  known  as  the  feudal  system.     As  we  have  seen,    institutions 

Eni,'lish  institutions  early  felt  tliis  tendency  in  the  ten-  il087; 

are  of  laud  and  in  the  authority  exercised  by  landowners  over 
their  tenants;  so  that  the  influence  of  the  Normans  was  suffi- 
cient to  bring  about  the  feudalization  of  state,  ciiurch,  and 
societ}'  alike.  The  feudal  system  was  partly  a  device  for 
securing  public  order  at  a  period  when  the  king's  authority  was 
still  weak  and  no  national  judicial  system  existed  ;  partly  a  levy 
of  a  standing  army  for  natidual  defense;  partly  a  convenient 
substitute  for  money  rents  and  money  taxes ;  jjartly  an  expre.s- 
sion  of  man's  natural  tendency  to  exalt  pliysical  strength  and 
attacli  himself  to  a  leader.  The  system  was  not  fully  devel- 
oped in  England  until  a  century  after  the  concpiest,  but  for 
clearness  of  description  we  shall  group  here  all  its  parts  as 
they  were  developed  on  English  soil  under  the  Norman  kings. 
Under  tlie  feudal  system  the  nionarch  was  in  theory  the 
owner  of  all  the  lands  in  the  realm.  "  The  battle  of  Hastings 
was  looked  upon  as  a  settlement  of  all  the  estate  in  I'^ng-  g,  - 
land,  not  even  excepting  the  estates  of  the  Church.  No  rain  and 
man  could   hold  an  acre  bv  an  ante-Noniian  title.      .Vll 

}liir;/iin. 

were  obliged  to  seek   the  king  and  to  buy  their  lands.'"         Kni/lund 
M<.st  of  these    lands    were  bv  him   '*  granted "  in    large   "'"'"'«/«^ 

111(1 1»  fJcCU' 

blocks   to   individuals   on  condition   that  they   rendered       pa(ion,2i 


96 


NORMAN  FEUDALISM 


Seal  showing  Act  of 
Homage. 

Twelfth  ceutiuy. 


to  him   three   things:    (1)  homage  —  that  is,  public  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  fact  that  the  land  was  received  as  a  grant  for 
which  service  was  owed,  and  not  as  a  free  gift ;  (2)  fealty  — 
that  is,  loyal  adherence  to  the  interests  of  the  giver ;  (3)  serv- 
ice— that  is,  assistance  to  the  mon- 
arch  in   certain    stipulated  ways. 
The  chief  of  these  was  military 
service,  and  in  general  the  gran- 
tee  was    expected    to    furnish    a 
"  knight "'   (mounted  warrior)    for 
every  "knight's  fee"  (five  hides  of 
laud).     The    lands  thus  received, 
called    "  fiefs,"    were    said    to    be 
'•held  of"  the  grantor,  as  "suze- 
rain."    The  recipient,  called   the 
"  vassal "  of  the  monarch,  received 
from  him  a  title  (earl,  baron,  etc.)  varying  with  the  amount 
of  territory  and  the  degree  of  the  dignity  conferred.     If  any 
vassal  refused  to  perform  any  of  the  services  above  mentioned, 
his  lands  were  forfeited  to  the  donor.     At  the  death  of  any 
vassal  his  lands  by  right  reverted  to  the  monarch  ;  bqt  it  was 
customary,  if  the  vassal  left  a  male  heir,  to  invest  that  heir 
with  the  vassal's  lands.     Any  vassal  with  large  holdings  was 
at  liberty,  by  "  subinfeudation,"  to  grant  portions  of  his  lands 
to  vassals  of  his  own,  and  thus  there  arose  the  two  classes  of 
"  tenants  in  chief  "  and  "  mesne  tenants,"  or  tenants  of  tenants. 
The  most  obvious  effect  of  this  feudal  system  was  to  create 
a  large  military  aristocracy,  and  to  make  fighting  power  the 
94.  Effect     chief   measure  of   a  man's   political   and    social   impor- 
ismon^"      tance.      As   William   I.   had    about  600   lay  tenants   in 
society  chie^,  and  they  had  about  7400  mesne  tenants,  and  as 

the  lands  held  of  William  T.  amounted  to  60.000  knights'  fees, 
it  was  certain  that  there  would  always  be  some  thousands  of 
linen  in  England  trained  to  the  profession  of  arms,  owning  war 


Tin:     1  1.1  1>A1.1/.A  1  InN     ny    KMil.IsiI     INSTITUTIONS        H7 

lioiscs  ;iud  11  complete  oiittit  of  armor  and  weapons,  and  rea«ly  to 
assemble  promptly  at  the  call  of  their  sovereign,  on  penalty  of 
losinj,'  both  ^iroperty  and  honor.  Such  a  body  was  more  than 
a  match  for  any  mass  of  untrained,  unorganized  eivilians.  light- 
ing, as  they  must,  ou  foot  and  without  effective  weapons  or 
armor.  The  nulitary  supremacy  of  the  armor-elad  horseman 
-  xplains  why  the  barons,  with  their  bands  of  armed  retainers 
and  their  castles  as  a  base  of  operations,  kept  whole*  districts 
in  subjection,  even  when  their  rule  was  unbearably  harsh. 

Along  with  military  importance,  a  vassal  accpiired  high 
social  distinction :  he  was  subject  to  an  elaborate  system  of 
initiation  into  knighthood;  he  recognized  a  strict  code  of 
honor;  associations  or  orders  of  knights  were  established  which 
became  noted  for  their  wealth,  military  proAvess,  chivalric 
conduct,  and  social  prestige. 

In   France   this  system   proved    faidty    because    the    king's 

vassals  were  too   few,   and    their  Hefs   were   corresi)ondingly 

large.     Each  duke  or  count  (as  the  vassals  were  called)   95.  English 

was  so  powerful  tliat  he  could  make  private  war  at  his      and  Conti 

*  nental 

own  jileasure,  and  defy  the  will  of  his  suzerain  whenever      feudalism 

he  chose,  .strong  in  the  support  of  bodies  of  knights  owing 
allegiance  only  to  him.  William  had  seen  the  evils  of  this 
system  in  Normandy,  and  he  was  determined  that  the  Con- 
tinental j)rini'iple,  '•  vassallus  mei  vassalli  non  est  mens  vas- 
sallus"  (my  vassal's  vassal  is  not  my  vas.sal),  should  not 
jirevail  in  England.  Hence  arose  the  first  uni(pie  element  in 
Knglish  feudalism,  the  paramount  obligation  of  all  landholders 
to  the  monarch. 

William  first  ordered  a  systematic  survey  of  all  the  landed 
estates  in  England  south  of  the  Tees  (lOS;"),  to  learn  the    96.  Domes- 
iiiiount  of  taxable  pro|>erty  in   the  (country,  and  the  cor-  and  the 

resjionding  services  <lue  to  the  crown.  '"So  very  nar-  Salisbury 
ntwly  did  he  cause  the  survey  to  be  ma<le,  that  there  i.s.c/m.n- 
was   not  a   single  hide  nor  a  rood  of  land,    nor — it   is         icU,  loti:, 


98  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

shameful  to  relate  that  which  he  thought  no  shame  to  do 
—  was  there  an  ox,  or  a  cow,  or  a  pig  passed  by,  that  was  not 
set  down  in  the  accounts."  The  results  of  this  survey  were 
recorded  in  the  celebrated  Domesday  Book,  which  gives  to  the 
historian  invaluable  information  in  regard  to  the  population, 
the  organization  of  the  state,  and  the  distribution  of  territory 
among  the  people  at  the  time  of  the  conquest. 


Is 


p^^Aw.^wnceo  moii-no  out'  infiti  aurnttr  1ut>c(vw-/ 

Beginning  of  the  Domesday  Book  Entry  for  Oxford. ^ 

Then,  having  summoned  all  the  landowners  to  a  national 
moot  at  Salisbury  in  August,  1086,  he  demanded  an  oath  of 
4  -S  Chron-  fealty  directly  to  the  crown.  Then  came  "all  his  Witan 
icle,  1086  and  all  the  landowners  of  sidjstanee  in  England,  whose 
vassals  soever  they  were,  and  they  all  submitted  to'  him  and 
became  his  men,  and  swore  oath  of  allegiance  to  him  that  they 
would  be  faithful  to  him  against  all  others."  Thereafter  no 
landholder  in  England  could  aid  in  a  struggle  against  the 
crown  without  being  guilty  of  perjury  and  treason. 

AVilliam  further  safeguarded  the  authority  of  the  monarch 
97.  Wil-  by  making  the  numl)er  of  his  vassals  very  large.  He  sub- 
tipHcation "  ^^i^ided  the  few  great  earldoms  already  existing,  so 
of  fiefs  that  no  such  great  noble  houses  as  those  of  Godwin  and 

1  Translation  :  "  In  King  Edward's  time,  Oxford  paid  to  the  king  for  toll 
and  gable  and  all  other  customs  yearly  £20  and  six  sextaries  of  honey.  More- 
over, to  Earl  Algar  £10  in  addition  to  the  mill  whieh  he  had  within  the  city. 
When  the  king  went  on  an  expedition,  20  burgesses  went  with  him  fur  all  the 
others,  or  they  gave  £20  to  the  king  that  all  might  be  free." 


TllK    FKrn.M.lZATInX    oF    KNCKISII     INS  11  IT  III  »NS       V»9 

Leofiic  iiiiijht  arise  to  tlueateu  tlie  power  of  the  monarch  ; 
and  he  distrilmted  the  liolilini,'s  of  the  more  jiowerful  barons 
through  various  seetions  of  the  countiT.  For  example,  liis 
half-brother.  ( )do  of  Hayeux,  was  given  four  hundred  and 
thirty  manors,  but  they  were  distributed  through  seventeen 
different  counties.  Thus  William's  great  vassals  were  able  to 
maintain  many  small  bodies  of  troops  for  use  in  his  wars,  yet 
were  prevented  from  creating  large,  well-organized  armies. 

In  one  respect  only  was  this  policy  dejiarted  from.  On  the 
western  "  marches  "  (borders)  William  created  two  large  earl- 
doms, Chester  and  Shropshire,  the  rulers  of  which  exercised 
almost  sovereign  powers  within  their  own  domains,  and  he  per- 
mitted the  Bishop  of  Durham  to  exercise  similarly  extensive 
powers  in  his  see  ;  —  whence  Chester  and  Durham  later  became 
known  as  '-palatine  counties.*'  The  reason  for  this  policy  was 
that  in  those  remote  districts  an  especially  strong  government 
was  needed  to  preserve  internal  order  and  to  protect  the  king- 
dom from  the  raids  of  the  Scots  and  the  Welsh. 

Limitation  of  the  power  of  the  king's  vassals  was  the  more 
necessary  because  with  the  feudal  holdings  of  land  went  im- 
portant powers  of  government.  In  a  modern  .state,  the  gg  j-gudal 
work  of  making  laws,  applying  them  to  particular  cases,  jurisdiction 
administering  and  enforcing  them  is  given  over  to  officials  — 
legislators,  judges,  governors,  police  officers — most  of  whom 
are  elected  or  appointed  to  do  this  work,  and  devote  their  lives 
to  it  as  a  jirofession.  In  the  feudal  state,  these  duties  fell  to 
the  holders  of  fiefs,  every  one  of  which  was,  as  it  were,  a 
little  state  where  one  man  held  most  of  the  offices.  To  this 
man  the  king  looked  for  feudal  dues  and  military  service  pro- 
portional to  the  size  of  the  fief ;  to  him  he  looked  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  order  on  his  lands:  and  he  therefore  gave  him 
ample  powers  of  jurisdiction,  including  "sac  and  .soc,"  or  the 
right  of  holding  courts  and  levying  fines,  over  all  persons 
residing  upon  his  lands. 


100  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

In  this  matter  of  local  jiirisdictioii,  William  reduced  the 
powers  of  his  nobles  below  those  of  the  French  peers,  using 

99.  Fusion    for  this  purpose  the  older  Anglo-Saxon  machinery  of  gov- 

of  ^axon        ernment.     Reserving  the  dignity  of  "  earl "'  as  a  general 
and  Norman  o  o       ^  o 

elements  thing  for  the  lords  of  the  marches,  he  governed  the 
midland  shires  through  sheriffs,  whose  dignity,  not  being  he- 
reditary, could  never  become  dangerous  to  the  crown.  By 
retaining  the  customary  hundred  and  town  moots  for  local 
business,  he  limited  the  authority  of  the  barons  and  yet  left 
them  strong  for  military  service.  By  retaining  the  English 
common  law  as  the  standard  in  these  moots,  he  made  it  easy 
for  the  people  to  accept  the  new  order  of  things,  and  thus 
lessened  the  excuse  for  severe  government  by  the  barons. 

Some  changes  in  existing  laws  were  necessary,  to  adjust 
the  relations  of  Normans  and  Englishmen.  For  example,  in 
criminal  cases,  the  accused  was  permitted  to  choose  between 
the  old  English  ordeal  and  the  newer  Norman  "trial  by 
battle  "  with  his  accuser  ;  and  a  special  law  was  passed  to  pun- 
ish the  treacherous  or  violent  maltreatment  of  Normans  by 
Englishmen.  Nevertheless,  the  old  English  constitution  per- 
sisted beneath  the  feudal  veneering ;  and  this  mixture  of  Saxon 
democratic  elements  with  Norman  aristocratic  features  forms 
a  second  distinguishing  mark  of  English  feudalism.  The 
nomenclature  which  sprang  up  after  the  conquest  illustrates 
this  happy  union :  the  sovereign  preserved  the  English  title  of 
"  king,"  not  the  Norman  title  of  roii,  but  his  council  became 
a  "Parliament"  instead  of  a  "  Witan " ;  the  administrative 
divisions  were  called  "counties"  as  well  as  "shires,"  but  their 
chief  officers  Avere  "  sheriffs,"  not  viscontes  (viscounts). 

One  important  element  in  the  Saxon  state,  the  Witenage- 

100.  Devel-  mote,  disappeared  with  the  advent  of  Norman  feudalism  ; 

?,^°^f^^°^,     for  the  king  was  now  in  theory  an  absolute  monarch, 
the "  King  s  ^  . 

Council"        requiring  no  control  or  advice  save  that  of  his  vassals 

assembled    as    a    Magnum    Concilium,    or    "  Great    Council." 


Tin:    FKIDALIZATION    OF    KNOLISII    TNST' IITI- )\\S      101 

l>ut  a  sucopssor  to  tlie  Witenageraote  soon  appeared ;  for 
uinor  laiulowiiers  cared  little  to  attend  the  meetings  of  the 
"ireat  Conneil,  where  only  the  rich  and  the  powerfnl  feudal 
( liieftains  could  speak  with  authority,  and  where  the  monarch 
\>as  surrounded  by  a  group  of  advisers  skilled  in  the  political 
science  of  the  Continent. 

Since  the  Xornians  used  seals  on  public  documents,  a  practice 
till  then  unknown  in  England.  ^Villiam  had  always  at  court 
a  Chauei'llor,  or  keeper  of  the  king's  seal ;  a  Treasurer  was 


h.\i    Hi;<^rKK     lALLlKS 

Notched  sticks  were  split,  ami  jjayer  and  payee  took  eaoli  a  half  as 
evideiii-e  <>f  the  tiausaetiou. 

needed  to  care  for  the  hoard  which  the  Norman  kings  laid  away 
for  emergencies ;  William's  transformation  of  the  Danegeld  into 
a  permanent  land  tax  forced  him  to  develop  an  "  Exchequer," 
or  treasury  department ;  and  the  increase  of  the  king's  authority 
led  to  the  custom  of  ai)peals  from  the  decision  of  the  baronial 
courts,  and  thus  to  the  aj)pointntent  of  a  Supreme  Justiciar. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  these  officers,  together  with  other 
permanent  othcials  like  the  king's  marshal,  his  steward,  and 
the  two  archbisli()])s  (of  Canterbury  and  of  York),  soon  assumed 
such  widt^  powers  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  to  assend)le  the 
Great  Council  frequently,  and  that  they  early  became  (trgaui/ed 
into  a  permanent  Curia  lioijis,  or  "  King's  Council."  Tlie  eliief 
iluties  of  the  Curia  Regis  —  which  was  in  theory  only  a  com- 
mittee of  the  Great  ('ouncil  —  were  (1)  to  frame  legislative 
measures  for  ratification  by  that  council,  (2)  to  supervi.se  the 
libordinate  government  officials,    (3)  to  assess  and  collect  the 


:i(V'2 


NOHMAN   FEUDALISM 


king's  revenues,  and  (4)  to  decide  appeals  to  the  king's  justice. 
The  development  of  this  system  Avas  of  course  slow,  but  its 
rudiments  all  existed  during  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror. 


101.  The 
manorial 
system 


Ruins  of  Ludlow  Castle,  on  the  Welsh  Marches. 
Built  iu  1090.     Norman  type  of  architecture. 

(B)   The  Maxorial  System 

The  feudal  institution  which  had  most  effect  upon  modern 
English  life  was  perhaps  the  '•  manor  "  —  a  political,  indus- 
trial, and  social  unit  from  which  in  many  cases  was 
developed  a  town  or  a  city.  With  these  manors  the  face 
of  England  was  checkered  after  the  Korman  conquest, 
although  many  of  them  were  of  earlier  origin.  Each  manor 
was  a  separately  managed  estate,  forming  })art  of  the  domains 
of  some  baron  (tenant  in  chief),  or  of  the  king.  Naturally 
its  boundary  lines  tended  to  follow  the  boundaries  of  some 
older  estate,  township,  or  parish  (§  108). 

The  baron  had  upon  each  manor  at  least  three  classes  of 


riir.     KKIDAI.I/AI'ION    (tK    KNCI.ISII     I NS  II  ITIK  »NS      1(1:5 

tenants:  (1)  fighting  men,  who  liold  l»y  "ti'iiiiro  of  kniglit-serv- 
ice"  aud  by  whose  aid  he  tultiUed  liis  military  oltligatioii  to  liis 
suzerain  ;  {'J)  ''freemen,"  or  ''soke  men,"  vohmtary  tenants  who 
paid  only  a  small  fixed  rent,  but  wi-re  sul)jeet  to  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  his  courts;  (."■>)  the  "villeins,''  who  were  ''bound  to  the 
land  "  of  their  lord.  Those  who  held  by  '•  privileged  tenure  " 
could  not  be  expelled  from  the  land  by  the  lord,  paid  to  him 
oidv  a  si)ecified  rent,  and  performed  only  specified  serv- 
ices ;  those  who  held  their  land  by  "  base  tenure ' '  were  Uv  Lff/iims 
tenants  at  will  only,  and  "  knew  not  in  the  evening  what  -ifjl'^ 

was  to  be  done  in  the  morning."     Some  held  no  laud,  but  were 
employed  as  household  servants,  being  virtually  slaves. 

As  dispenser  of  justice,  the  lord  of  the  manor  held  in 
his  manor  house  at  stated  times  several  kinds  of  manorial 
courts,  annnig  them  (1)  the  "court-baron,"  in  wliich  jQg  Mano- 
disputes  in  regard  to  services  due  from  tenants  were  set-  rial  courts 
tied  by  examination  of  the  "rolls,"  or  records  kept  by  the 
bailiff;  (2)  the  " court-leet,''  in  which  the  military  force  of  the 
manor  was  reviewed  twice  a  year  and  criminals  were  tried. 
Unjust  tolls,  poaching,  brawling,  scolding,  larceny,  and  drunk- 
enness were  the  chief  offenses,  punished  by  light  fines  which 
went  to  swell  the  income  of  the  lord.  His  jurisdiction  of 
course  included  the  right  to  assign  lands  to  his  tenants,  and 
to  enforce  :ill  the  services  due  him  as  lord  of  the  manor.  Witli- 
out  the  consent  of  his  lord  no  villein  tenant  could  sell  any  jtor- 
tion  of  his  live  stock,  alienate  (transfer  to  another)  any  i)ortion 
it  the  land  assigned  to  him,  give  liis  daughter  to  any  ])erson 
in  marriage,  or  ju'miit  his  son  to  be  ordained  to  the  service  of 
the  chuich. 

In  e;ich   manor  about  half  the  arable  land  was  set  a])art  as 

the  "demesne  lands"  of  the  lord.     'I'he  rest  was  divided    ,„^    ^  _, 

103    Indus- 

into  (1)  "doses,"  or  fenced  fields,  each  .set  apart   for  a     tries  of  the 
special  crop;   (2)  moa<low  lands  devoted  to  the  raising  of  manor 

li;iy  ;   (.'{)  "commons."  or  pasture  hinds  where  the  herds  of  all 


-W     K     0)     C    -^ 

>  si  ^  a 

?:»  oj  3         .§3 

5    eS         to    O 

-  c:    II    * 

&        ©as 

-§    ■  «  -c.  -5 

01 

M  7^  o  ^  a 
S  o  a  ^  .2 

< 

a>  a  cS  jj  sS 
3  -  a  tc  ^ 

H 

M 

.^^  ";s 

<!; 

t3  +^  4i    0)    © 

f; 

S  i  21^5 

m 

^  ^  1  -^  ^ 

^ 

»  S^  a  1 

a  c3  5*   o  — 

K. 

aS^  -   & 

£2^?  2 

si 

CO  O  2  -  =^ 

1  i^i"- 

5  S  ~  II   a 

■A 

(B 

3  w   S        a^ 

O 

»5 
<1 

>2  =S^  £  CB 
f^          a;    a      . 

*-  a   §  t^  if  S 


-?  S  ^ 


§  «  a  J;  Oh  a, 


a  TS 


a  F  2 
a  p  <u 
^  o  TS 


104 


TIIK    KKl'DAMZAnoN    (»F    F.XOLlSlI     INS  I  I  nriONS-     105 

tlie  tenants  roamed  and  fed,  under  the  earo  ol  hcrdsinen ; 
(4)  waste  lands,  wliere  turf  and  brushwood  might  l>e  gath- 
vved ;  (o)  forests,  wliere  swine  were  pastured ;  and  (0)  the 
liohlings  of  the  individual  tenants  of  the  manor.  The  free- 
liolders  might  hold  any  amount  of  land ;  the  class  of  villeins 
railed  rotsetla.%  ior  instance,  had  holdings  of  five  acres  each, 
for  which  they  paid  rent  by  working  for  the  lord  of  the  manor 
one  day  a  week  all  the  year  round  and  three  days  a  week  in 
harvest ;  another  class,  the  geburs,  held  thirty  or  forty  acres 
each,  stocked  with  two  oxen  and  one  cow  and  six  sheep,  as 
well  as  with  tools  for  work  and  utensils  for  the  house ;  these 
did  proportionately  more  work  for  the  lord. 

The  work  of  the  manor  was  carried  on  under  the  supervision 
of  a  reeve  or  a  bailiff,  who  assigned  strips  in  Ihe  wheat  tield, 
the  barley  field,  the  oat  field,  the  bean  field,  in  different  years 
to  different  tenants;  and  who  set  aside  portions  of  land  to  lie 
fallow  and  recover  their  fertility.  He  directed  the  work 
of  plowing,  sowing,  reaping,  etc.,  for  which  the  villeins  fur- 
nished oxen  and  manual  labor  in  proportion  to  their  holdings; 
and  in  general  he  was  the  responsible  director  of  all  the  organ- 
ized activities  of  the  manor. 

"  W»l  wiste  he  by  the  drouglit,  and  by  the  rain, 

The  yeldint;  of  his  seed,  and  of  his  grain.  Chaucer, 

His  lord^s  shepe,  his  nete,i  and  his  deirie.a  Canterhun/ 

His  swme,  hi.s  hors,  his  store,  and  his  pultrie'  Prologue 

Were  holly*  in  this  revfis  governing." 

The  principal  buildings  on  a  manor  were  the  parish  church 

and  the  manor  hoiLse;  the  former  located  at  a  central  point, 

the  latter  on  the  most  picturesque  or  commanding  site.        ,.,    ^ 
'  »  "  104    Do- 

Kor  some  centuries  after  the  coufjuest,  the  manor  houses  mestic  life 
were  rud«  buildings  of  wood  or  riibble,  and  contained  °°  *  manor 
but  few  rooms,  including  a  hall,  a  <'hamlM'r  for  the  lord  of 

1  cattle  2  dairy.  '  p«jiiltry.  *  wLully. 


106 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


Hundred  Men's  Hai.l,  near  Winchester. 

Showing  central  open  fireplace, 

without  chimney. 


the   manor,  a  kitchen, 
and    cellars.      In    the 
great   liall  was   a   fire- 
place, the  smoke  from 
which  escaped  through 
a  "lantern  "  (a  sheltered 
ojjening  in  the  roof).  In 
rare  cases  there  was  a 
roughly  made  and  leaky 
chimney,    but   never   a 
stove.       The    earth    or 
stone  floor  of  the  hall 
was  covered  only  with  rushes,  and  it  contained  little  furniture 
except  stools  and  the  great  table,  at  which  the  entire  house- 
hold dined  four  times  a  day  during  the  brief  period  when  the 
lord  was  in  residence.     "  They  roam  with  a  train  of  followers 
Warner,        from  one  estate  to  another;  there  is  a  great  bustle  of 
lAfJ'in^the      preparation ;  a  few  days'  stay 
Middle  Ages   consumes  the   produce  stored 
up  during  the  year ;  then  they  go 
on  to  the  next  manor,  and  the  coun- 
try-side sinks  back  to  its  accustomed 
quiet." 

The  freeholding  tenants,  of  course, 
dwelt   on   their   own  farms.     In  a 

105.  Mano-   ^"°^^  °^  ^*"^^®  houses,   grouped 

rial  vil-  along  the  main  road  through 
the  manor  and  forming  a  little 
village,  dwelt  tlie  villein  agricultural 
tenants  and  the  few  artisans  (the 
miller,  the  wheelwright,  the  black- 
smith, the  armorer,  the  carpenter, 
the  weaver)  attached  to  the  estate. 
The   homes  of   the   villein  tenants 


lages 


A'lLLEIN. 


From  a  MS.  Life  of  Christ, 
twelfth  century. 


TIIK    l-i:ri)Al.lZAlU»N    (»F    KNCiLlSll     INS  lllLTK  >N.S       1()7 

wore  one-storied  cottages,  with  thatched  roots,  unglazed  win- 
dows, aud  earth  floors.  Their  life  was  extremely  hard  as 
measured  by  nn)dern  standards ;  their  food  was  ccjarse  and 
poorly  cooked;  their  clothinL,'  was  designed  for  a  covering, 
without  tliought  of  adornment;  and  they  often  shared  their 
one-roomed  cottages  with  the  animals  that  they  owned. 

In  manors  iav(tral)ly  situated  for  trade  or  handicraft,  miglit 
Ite  fouml  also  a  few  merihants,  and  i)ossibly  a  few  craftsmen, 
the  nucleus  of  an  industrial  community,  which  might  later  be- 
come a  free  town  (§  148).  A  contem2)orary  writer  describes 
the   development  of  such  villages  as  follows:    "In  the  said 

manor  are  two  towns,  one  called  Over-Combe,  in  which 

William  oj 
reside  the  yeomen  who  are  occupied  in  the  culture  and      Worceaior, 

working  of   the  land  which   lies   on   the   hill ;  and  the     <^'''«'-'"^"'"i/ 

other  called  Xether-C'ombe,  in  which  dwell  the  men  who  use  to 

make  cloth,  as  weavers,  fullers,  dyers,  and  other  tradesmen." 

Many  military  tenants  and  freeholders  paid  only  nominal 
rents :  a  hound,  or  a  falcon,  or  a  piece  of  armor,  or  candles 
for  the  parish  church,  or  a  jiound  of  some  rare  substance 
like  pepj)er.  The  villeins  paid  beans,  hens,  honey,  eels  (for 
water  rights),  and  furnished  service  in  hauling  or  cutting 
wood,  harvesting  grain,  jdowing  the  lord's  land,  making  fences 
or  thatches,  and  many  like  tasks.  The  artisan  (for  example, 
the  miller  or  the  smith)  usually  paid  a  snuill  sum  in  silver. 

Almost  the  only  sources  of  income  for  the  lord  of  the  manor 

were  the  rent  of  his  lands  and  the  crops  rai.sed  on  his  own 

•  lemesnc  tidds.     Df  these  [jroducts  a  part  was  used  in    106   Finan- 

the  maintenance  of  his  crowd  of  retainers,  his  chaplain,   "^^  °^ffj° 

'  *  '  of  the 

and  his  menial   servants;  the   rest   was  disjjosed  of  by  manor 

his  bailitT  at  the  market,  generally  held  weekly  in  .some 
neighV)oring  town,  or  at  the  fairs  held  annually  in  more 
remote  parts  of  the  country.  Thus  small  sums  of  money  were 
l»rocured.  but  so  scarce  were  gold  and  silver  that,  in  the  few 
cases  where  rents  were  paid  in  money,  the  annual  rent  rarely 


108  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

exceeded   sixpence   an   acre.      One    shilling   in   silver   would 
purchase  an  ox,  and  fourpeuce  a  sheep. 

The  income  of  the  king  was  very  large.     To  the  Conqueror 

(William  I.)  "  one  thousand  and  sixty  pounds,  thirty  shillings, 

107.  Na-       and  three  halfpence  were  returned,  day  by  day,  from  the 

tional  -j^jgj-  x-e venues  of  England,  without  including  donations 

finance  ''  o         ? 

OrdericusVi-  ^^^  pardons  and    manifold  other  resources."     Allowing 

talis,  IV.  7  for  the  historian's  inaccuracy,  we  can  not  reckon  this 
at  less  than  a  million  dollars  a  year  in  modern  currency. 
The  only  portions  of  this  sum  which  could  properly  be 
called  the  revenues  of  the  state  were  the  proceeds  of  the 
Danegeld  (which  William  I,  revived  as  a  land  tax,  and 
fixed  at  sixpence  a  hide),  and  the  king's  share  of  the  fines 
levied  in  the  shire  and  hundred  moots.  All  the  rest  of  his 
income  the  king  held  practically  in  his  own  right,  and  he  was 
expected  to  live,  as  the  phrase  went,  "  of  his  own."  He 
received  (1)  rents  from  the  royal  demesne,  which  at  the 
Domesday  survey  (§  96)  included  1422  manors  and  many 
royal  towns ;  (2)  property  falling  to  him  through  escheats  and 
forfeitures ;  (3)  receipts  from  the  sale  of  the  "  royal  fish " 
(whales  and  sturgeons)  which  might  be  taken  upon  the  coast; 
(4)  "  profits  of  jurisdiction  "  derived  from  fines  levied  on  of- 
fenders, etc ;  and  (5)  the  "  incidents  "  of  sovereignty,  of  which 
the  chief  were  as  follows :  (a)  when  a  vassal  died,  his  son  paid 
the  king  a  fee  called  a  "  relief  "  for  receiving  his  father's  hold- 
ings ;  (&)  when  a  vassal  wished  to  dis])Ose  of  land  to  another 
person,  he  paid  an  "alienation"  fee  for  the  privilege;  (c)  on 
the  death  of  a  vassal,  his  minor  children  became  wards  of  the 
king,  who  received  the  profits  of  their  property  until  they 
became  of  age ;  (d)  female  wards  had  to  marry  whomever  the 
king  chose,  or  pay  a  fine ;  (e)  when  the  king's  son  was  to  be 
knighted,  or  his  daughter  was  to  be  married,  vassals  were 
called  upon  to  contribute  an  "aid"  towards  defraying  the 
attendant  expense. 


riir.   I  T.rDAMZAiioN  of  knclisii   iNsri rrrioNs    loO 


Par- 
ishes 


(L')    TiiK    Fi:ri> Ai.i/.KM    (inucii 

The  orgauizatiuu  of  the  ehureh  was  siuh  that  it  could  adapt 
itself  readily  to  feudal  conditions.  The  unit  of  ecclesiastical 
organization  in  Eni^land  was  the  parish,  which  was  usu-  io8 
ally  a  single  village  or  township,  containing  the  parish 
church,  under  the  chai'ge  of  a  clergyman  ranking  as  rector, 
vicar,  or  curate,  according  to  the  wealth  or  importance  of  his 
chai'ge.  Whenever  a  clergyman  was  made  rector  of  a  parish, 
he  was  said  to  be  *'  invested  "  with  a  •'  benetice,"'  or  living.  He 
was  then  in  the  eye  of  the  law  an  •*  endowed  corporation," 
enjoying  (1)  the  '•  temi)oralities  "  of  the  benefice,  including  the 
church  edifice,  the  churchyard,  the  parsonage,  and  the  glebe, 
or  land  set  apart  for  the  support  of  the  church ;  (2)  the  "  spir- 
itualities," including  the  revenues  due  him  as  a  servant  of  God 

("tithes"  and  income  from  religious 
endowment),  and  the  right  to  con- 
duct religious  services  and  perform 
religious  rites  in  that  parish.  Like 
the  temporal  fiefs,  all  these  rights 
were  bestowed  by  a  superior,  were 
held  in  virtue  of  certain  duties  to  be 
fulfilled,  and  lapsed  to  the  grantor 
on  the  death  of  the  incumbent. 

Parishes  were  grouped  into  dio- 
ceses, each  constituting  the  "  st^c  " 
of  a  bishop,  who   .supervist-d     ^gg    Bish- 
the  i)arish  clergy.     This  offi-  oprics 

cial  usually  cho.se  for  his  residence 
the  leading  town  in  his  dioce.se; 
and  its  parish  church.in  which  was 
placed  the  bishop's  throne  (Latin  cathedra),  acquired  the 
dignity  of  a  "cathedral  church."  With  the  growth  of  the 
population    in    the  diocese,  the  cathedral   church   l^ecame  ex- 


BisHop  WITH  .Staff 
(Ckosikk). 

From  Oriiinuiii  l/ubilHit,a.n 
ancient  Dutch  pamphlet. 


110  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

ceediugly  important.  An  ample  edifice  was  needed  for  elabo- 
rate ceremonials,  and  for  meetings  of  the  clergy  ;  and  the  many 
special  services  called  for  the  support  of  the  "canons,"  a  large 
number  of  clergymen  ^organized  into  a  corporate  body  called 
the  "  dean  and  chapter  "  of  the  cathedral. 

Lastly,  the  sees  of  the  bishops  were  grouped  into  two  "  met- 
ropolitan provinces,"  under  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and 
the  Archbishop  of  York  respectively,  the  forjuer  ranking  as 
primate  of  all  England. 

In  this  organization  the  monasteries  held  a  unique  place 
because  of  their  numbers,  their  wealth,  and  the  influence  ex- 

110.  Mon-  erted  by  their  officers.  Besides  those  of  ancient  foun- 
asteries         dation,  twenty-six   new  ones   were   founded   under   the 

Conqueror  and  his  successor.  All  were  great  landowners. 
Their  abbots  (or  heads)  ranked  with  the  bishops  as  barons  of 
the  realm ;  their  officers  sat  with  the  other  clergy  in  a  church 
legislative  assembly  called  Convocation ;  and  their  tenure  of 
lands  was  affected  by  the  general  feudal  conditions  prevailing. 
But  the  monasteries  were  largely  independent  of  the  authority 
both  of  the  local  ecclesiastics  and  of  the  monarchs ;  for  they 
were  governed  by  the  superior  officers  of  their  order;,  who  in 
many  cases  were  responsible  only  to  the  Pope.  Thus  the  mon- 
asteries stood  in  less  close  relation  to  the  state,  and  for  that 
very  reason,  after  a  period  of  prosperity  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  they  were  ultimately  left  behind  in 
the  march  of  progress. 

The  church  organization,  as  a  whole,  Avas  in  very  close 
relations  to  the  state.     The  monarch  appointed  or  influenced 

111.  Rela-  the  selection  of  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  etc.  These 
c^u  ^  had  offi*^6rs  held  their  estates  on  feudal  terms,  and  sat  in  the 
state  Great  Council.     Ever}'  English  subject  was  a  member  of 

the  church,  every  resident  in  the  parish  was  bound  to  contrib- 
ute yearly  to  its  support  a  tithe,  or  tenth,  of  the  produce  of 
his  lands,  and  the  church  applied  a  "  civil,"  or  ecclesiastical. 


1111.    1  1.1  l»AI,l/.A  HON    OF    i;N(,l,lSil    INSTITUTIONS      111 


The  Tithk  Barn,  Glastuniuky. 

Showing  influence  of  church  architecture 
ou  other  buildings. 


law,  whii-li  within  its  own  spliere  hail  the  same  binding  force 
as  common  hiw.  Again,  in  "  vestry''  meetings  of  the  i>arislie.s, 
much  of  the  town  business  was  transacted,  including  the  ap- 
pointment of  constables, 
'•way  wardens"'  (road 
commissioners),  and  the 
like.  On  many  manors, 
too,  the  lonl  had  the  sole 
right  of  "  advowson,"  or 
**  presentation  to  tlie  liv- 
ing,'' which  still  further 
tended  to  confuse  reli- 
gious and  secular  matters. 
Moreover,  as  the  clergy 
were  the  only  educated 
class  in  the  community,  brilliant  ecclesiastics  were  constantly 
tailed  upon  to  act  as  advisers  and  ministers  of  the  crown. 
From  the  accession  of  William  I.  until  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  every  chaiicfllur  ami  every  justiciar  was  a  churchman  of 
high  rank. 

Nowhere  were  the  strength  and  wisdom  of  William  the  Con- 
queror more  clearly  shown  than  in  his  attitude  toward   the 
church.     Pope  Gregory  VII.  (d.  108.")),  whose  ambition   112.  Eccle- 
was  to  make  the  Pope  something  like  a  universal  suze-        siastical 
rain  over  suzerains,  demanded  that  William   should  do         the  con 
homage    to  him   for   his   crown,  and    pay   certain    sums  quest 

already  long  due  to  Rome ;  but  the  Conqueror  declared  stoutly 
that  he  would  ''give  what  the  kings  before  him  had  given  and 
no  more."  To  prevent  encroachments  on  his  rights  as  mon- 
arch, he  declared  (1)  that  whenever  there  should  be  two 
rival  claimants  for  the  papacy,  he  should  have  the  right  to 
determine  wliich  should  be  recftgriized  within  his  kingdom; 
(2)  that  no  servant  of  tlie  king  shouhl  l)e  excommunicated 
witlinut  the  royal  sanction  ;  (3)  that  no  [lapal  bull  shouM  be 


112  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

promulgated  in  his  kingdom  until  it  had  been  inspected  by  the 
king.  Again,  he  held  churchmen  strictly  to  account  in  mat- 
,  ters  non-ecclesiastical.  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  who  was 
charged  with  misgovernment  during  William's  absence  on 
the  Continent,  pleaded  that  he  could  be  punished  only  by  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities.  William  replied,  "  I  do  not  seize  a 
clerk  or  a  bishop ;  I  seize  my  earl,  whom  1  set  over  my 
kingdom." 

At  the  same  time  William  gave  to  the  English  bishops  very 
greatly  increased  powers  in  their  own  field.  Bishops'  courts 
were  created  for  the  trial  of  cases  in  which  either  clergymen 
or  offenses  against  church  law  were  concerned ;  and  the 
church  received  a  more  centralized  organization.  In  par- 
ticular, under  the  advice  of  Lanfranc,  whom  he  brought  from 
Normandy  to  be  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  he  gave  the  see 
of  Canterbury  definite  precedence  over  its  sister  see  of  York, 
thus  bringing  the  entire  Church  of  England  under  a  single 
administrative  head. 

The  Norman  conquest  converted  all  landowners  in  England 
into  holders  of  land  by  grant  from  the  sovereign ;  it  greatly 
113    Sum-     enlarged    the    king's    demesne   lands,   and    brought   the 
™ary  self-governing  towns  under  his  immediate  jurisdiction  ; 

it  checked  the  tendency  toward  the  development  of  powerful 
principalities  within  the  state;  it  caused  the  disappearance 
of  the  Witenagemote  by  absorption  into  the  Magnum  Con- 
cilium, and  by  the  transference  of  some  of  its  functions  to 
an  administrative  machine,  the  Curia  Regis.  Thus  the  con- 
quest itself  determined  that  English  institutions  should  be 
permanently  feudal  in  form,  and  such  measures  as  the  Domes- 
day Book  survey  and  the  Salisbury  Law  made  this  feudal 
state  strongly  centralized  and  efficient.  Hence  it  results  that 
all  English  landowners  to-day  are  in  theory  direct  tenants  of 
the   crown ;    that    the    number    of    landowners   is   relatively 


Till-:    I'KLDAI.l/A  rioN    ol"    KMJl.lSll     INSTni'TK  ).\S      11:} 

small,  whole  villages  being  still  owned  by  a  single  individual, 
and  that  as  the  "gentry"  and  the  "nobility"  they  wield  a 
powerful  influence  on  political  ^uul  sogial  life.  To  the  same 
period  may  be  traced  the  feudalization  of  the  eluarh  because 
of  its  large  holdings  of  land ;  and  the  consequent  close  union 
of  church  and  state  in  local  and  national  politics.  Thence- 
forth the  church,  with  its  special  legislative  body,  its  special 
laws  (based  not  on  English  but  on  Koman  models),  its  great 
wealth,  its  able  leaders,  and  its  moral  influence,  exerted  a 
dominating  influence  over  the  entire  public  life  of  the  nation. 

TOPICS 

(1)  Why  dill  William's  barons  allow  him  to  curtail  their  privi-  Suggestive 
leges  ?  (2)  What  title  is  borne  by  the  wife  of  an  English  earl,  ^°^^'^^ 
and  what  does  it  indicate  in  regard  to  iiis  rank  as  estimated  in 
land  ?  (3)  Why  was  not  the  power  of  the  palatine  lulei-s  in  Dur- 
ham and  Kent  as  carefully  restricted  a.s  that  of  the  rulers  of  Chester 
and  Shrewsbury  ?  (4)  Why  was  Salisbury  a  suitable  location  for 
the  important  national  moot  of  1086  ?  (5)  What  features  of  the 
domestic  life  of  this  period  made  against  refinement  of  taste  and 
manners  ?  (6)  Was  there  any  justice  in  requiring  that  all  grain 
raised  on  a  manor  should  be  ground  at  the  lord's  mill  ?  (7)  Why 
were  bee  keepers  to  be  found  on  every  manor  ?  (8)  Enumerate  the 
advantages  which  tenants,  widow.s.  and  wards  derived  from  their 
lord,  as  a  compensation  for  their  state  of  dependency.  (0)  To 
what  special  cla.ss  of  landowners  were  water  rights  e.specially  valu- 
able ?  (10)  What  evils  were  fostered  by  the  .system  of  i)resenta- 
tion  to  benefices?  (11)  Enumerate  the  advantages  possessed  by 
a  cathedral  town.  (12)  How  could  a  bi.shop  fulfill  his  military 
obligations  to  his  suzerain  ?  (lo)  Compare  tlie  food  of  a  villein  of 
the  twelfth  centun,'  witli  that  of  a  moilerii  laborer.  (14)  Contrast 
in  the  .same  manniT  his  ordinary  dress,  in  materials  and  style, 
with  that  of  a  modem  laborer.  (15)  In  what  ways  was  the 
feudal  military  sy.stem  wiusteful  ? 

(10)  Sac  and  soc.    (17)  The  effect  of  the  Norman  conquest  in    Search 
.southern  Scotland.      (IH)  Significance   of  the   law  of    Kiigli>hry.    ^"P''^' 
(111)   William  and  the  forest  law.s.     (20)   A  descrij)tion  of   Donies- 
d.iy  Book.     (21)  The  right  of  presentation  to  benefices  in  the  nine- 
teenth century.     (22)  The  origin  of  the  crown  jewels  of  England. 


114 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


(23)  Trace  the  status  of  the  different  residents  on  a  manor  men- 
tioned in  the  Prologue  to  Chaucer's  Cnnterbnr>/  Tales.  (24)  Nor- 
man and  Anglo-Saxon  sporis,  as  illustrated  in  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


REFERENCES 

Bright,  History  nf  England,  I.  36-39,  42-43,  48-50,  55  ;  Gardiner, 
StudenVs  Ilistorn,  81,  104-114,  116-117,  127,  140-141  ;  Kansome, 
Advanced  History,  94-101,  116-117,  258-260;  Green,  Short  His- 
tory, 83-90,  245-246,  — History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  i.  ch.  iv.  ; 
Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional  History,  chs.  iii.  iv.  ;  Gib- 
bins,  Industrial  History,  7-22  ;  Cheyney,  Introdvction  to  the  Indus- 
trial and  Social  History  of  England,  ch.  ii.  ;  Cunningham  and 
McArthur,  Industrial  History,  28-37  ;  Ashley,  Growth  of  English 
Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  134-162,  229-244 ;  H.  Taylor,  The 
English  Constitution.  I.  222-267 ;  Medley,  Students''  Manual  of 
English  Constitutional  History,  19-36-;  Taswell-Langmead,  Consti- 
tutional History,  ch.  ii.  ;  Stubbs,  Select  Charters,  13-19,  —  Con- 
stitutional History,  I.  chs.  ix.  xi. ;  Freeman.  Norman  Conquest,  V. 
ch.  xxiv. ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England,  bk.  ii.  ch.  v.  ; 
Johnson,  Normans  in  Europe,  chs.  xiii.  xiv.  xvii.  ;  Ramsay,  Foun- 
dations of  England,  II.  ch.  x.  ;  Wakeman,  Introduction  to  the 
History  of  the  Church  of  England,  chs.  iii.  ix.  ;  Wakeman  and 
Hassall,  E.fsays  Introductory  to  English  Constitutional  History, 
no.  ii.  ;  Creasy,  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Constitution, 
chs.  vii.  viii.  ;  Traill,  Social  England,  I.  236-253,  356-359  ;  Lang, 
History  of  Scotland,  I.  ch.  vi.  ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of 
English  Law,  I.  bk.  ii.  chs.  i.  ii.  See  New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association,  Syllabus,  238. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutioiuil 
History,  nos.  1-6;  Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  14-16; 
Henderson,  Select  Documents,  9 ;  Cheyney,  English  Manorial 
Documents  (University  of  Pennsylvania  Reprints,  III.  no.  5), — 
Documents  Illustrative  of  Feudalism  (University  of  Pennsylvania 
Reprints,  IV.  no.  3). 


CHATTKH    VI I  r. 

KNCLANI)    INDKU     Till:   LATKK  NOII.MAN   KINGS  (1087-1104) 

It  is  nut  to  be  supposed  that  the  followers  of  the  <  "oiKpieror, 
who  had  hoped  to  carve  out  for  themselves  in  England  coun- 
ties and  duchies  like  those  in  France,  accepted  without     114.  Char- 
protest  the  novel  feudal  linntatioiis  imposed  by  William,      actenstics 
'  '  "^  of  the  Nor- 

In  the  century  which  followed  the  conquest,  the  great  man  period 
Xonnan  landliolders  struggled  hard  to  exalt  the  power  of  the 
baronage  at  the  expense  of  that  of  the  monarch.  The  palatine 
earls,  in  particular,  often  took  advantage  of  their  i)Osition  and 
their  privileges  to  defy  the  authority  of  the  king.  In  this 
contest  between  the  lower  Continental  and  the  stricter  English 
types  of  feudalism,  the  instinct  of  the  English  peojde  to  seek 
liberty  througli  order  rather  than  through  anarchy  finally  gave 
tlu»  victory  to  the  champions  of  centralization. 

The  Conqueror  left  his  domain  of  Normandy  to  Robert,  his 
eldest  surviving  son,  and  named   his  younger  son,   William 
Iviifus  (or  ''the  Red"),  as  his  successor  on  the  English    115    Rei^ 
throne.     During  William   II. 's  reign   of   thirteen  years,      jt    los-)" 
i^iiglaud   suffered   from    the   misgovernment  of  a    head-  llOOi 

strong,  violent,  and  grasping  moiuirch.  So  wicked  in  his  pri- 
vate life  that  at  his  death  he  was  buried  without  religious 
-^ervict*s,  naturally  violent  and  rendered  still  more  harsh  by 
the  relndlions  of  his  Xonnan-English  nobles,  by  quarrels  with 
his  brother,  and  by  controversies  with  the  kings  of  Scotland, 
Wales,  and  France,  William  Rufiis  is  remembered  chiefly  for 
his  acts  of  tyranny. 

115 


116 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


These  acts  took  the  form  of  excessive 
taxation,  in  which  the  fiscal  machinery 
created  by  his  father  was  employed  to 
wrest  from  his  vassals  the  largest  possi- 
ble sums  of  money,  so  that  some  of  his 
subjects  complained  that  they  "would 
rather  wish  to  die  than  to  live  under  his 
tyranny."  Aided  by  an  able  but  ruthless 
justiciar,  Eanulf  Flambard,  he  exacted 
the  feudal  dues  of  relief,  wardship,  and 
marriage  with  extreme  severity.  He  sum- 
moned twenty  thousand  men  to  rendez- 
vous at  the  coast  for  an  expedition  into 
Norman  Foot  Soldier. 

Withcoatofmailmadeof  Normandy,  and  then  seized  the  money 
rings  quilted  on  cloth,  they  had  brought  for  passage  and  sent 
style  of  eleventh  cen-    ,,  ,  -i  tt  i. 

j-m-y  them  home  penniless.    He  not  on 

sold  appointments  to 
benefices,  but  even  kept  important 
ecclesiastical  offices  vacant  for  long 
terms  of  years  in  order  to  enjoy  their 
revenues  himself.  The  archbishopric 
of  Canterbury  was  thus  left  vacant 
for  a  period  of  four  years.  When  he 
finally  was  frightened  by  sickness 
into  appointing  Anselm,  a  Norman 
monk,  to  the  vacancy,  the  latter  at 
first  refused  to  be  "yoked  to  Eng- 
land's plow  with  a  king  fierce  as  a 
savage  bull ."  Anselm  finally  accepted 
the  office,  but  was  soon  forced  to 
leave  England  for  Rome,  where  he 
remained  vmtil  William's  death  in 
1100.  William's  harsh  forest  laws, 
and  the  death  penalty  which  he  im- 


NoRMAN  Spearman. 

In  full  suit  of  mail  made  of 
square  plates  quilted  on 
cloth  or  leather,  style  of 
eleventh  century.  From 
an  ancient  MS.  psalter. 


KNCI.AM)    INDKH     11  IK    LA  1  Kli     NuKMaN    KIN(.S        117 

posed  tor  tlieir  non-observance,  are   remembered   because   he 

met  his  death  while  hunting  in  the  New   Forest.      Wliether 

due  to  treachery  or  to  accident,  this  fate  seemed  to  liis  sul>- 

jects  a  retribution  for  his  tyranny. 

William's  elder  brother,  Robert,  should  now  have  succeeded 

him,  but  Henry,  a  younger  brother,  took  advantage  of  Robert's 

absence  on  the  First  Crusade,  and,  hastening  to  Winches-   ,,.    _. 

'  '  °  116    Henry 

ter,  secured  from  the  barons  there  present  his  own  elec-        I.   1100- 
tion   to   the    kingship,  gained   possession   of   the    royal  ^ 

treasury,  and  proceeded  to  fill  the  offices  with  his  own  friends. 
In  contrast  with  his  brother's  reign,  that  of  Henry  I.  stands 
out  as  a  period  of  good  government.  Born  in  England,  edu- 
cated like  a  churchman,  gifted  by  nature  with  a  wise  and 
stable  character,  he  atoned  for  his  hasty  seizure  of  the  crown 
by  thirty -five  years  of  good  rule. 

Henrv  Vjegan  his  reign  by  issuing  a  charter,  which  is  ex- 
tremely important  because  up  to  this  time  the  royal  powers 

of    the    Norman    kings    were   never    formallv    defined;     ,,..    _, 

'^  •  '111.  Char- 

thenceforth  the  people  had  the  king's  written  acknowl-  ter  of 

edgment  of  certain  limitations  upon  his  own  authority.  ^^^^ 

In    the    charter,   Henry   restored    the    laws    of    Edward  the 

Confessor  wherever  they  had  fallen  into  abeyance ;  promised 

to  archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  barons,  earls,   and  wards  of 

the  crown  freedom  from  unjust  exactions  ;  granted  remission 

of  debts;  forgave  past  crimes;  and  guaranteed  order  in  the 

future. 

In  its  i»ledges  against  certain  forms  of  arbitrary  ta.xation, 

against  tyranny  over  vassals  or  the  church,  against  violation 

of  the  "laws  of  the  land,"'  and  against  (tppri'ssion  of  mesne 

tenants  by  the  baronage,  this  charter  contained  by  imi»lication 

all  that  was  vital  in  the  later  Magna  Tharta  (§  170).     Later, 

lltnry  won  the  favor  of  the  church  by  recalling  to  Knglaml 

.Vnselfn,   the  able    .\rchbishop  of  Canterbury  whom    William 

Rufus  had  exiled;  and  he  attached  to  himself  the  hearts  of 


118  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

the  English  people  by  marrying  Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm 
of  Scotland  and  Margaret  of  England  (pp.  73,  127). 

Except   at    the   beginning  of  his   reign,  when   his   brother 
Robert  disputed  his  right  to  the  crown,  England  enjoyed  under 
Henry  a   needed    peace.     A  strong  hand   was    required, 
ry's  re-  however,  to  curb  the  headstrong  ambitions  of  his  more 

°^™^  powerful    vassals.     Henry   brought   charges    of  treason 

against  their  leader,  Robert,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  seized  his 
castles  on  the  Welsh  border,  and  drove  him  into  exile  in  1102. 
He  followed  this  up  by  banishing  and  fining  several  other  un- 
ruly earls,  and  thus  crippled  the  power  of  all  the  greater 
earldoms  created  by  his  father. 

He  then  undertook  the  promised  reforms  in  administration, 
in  which  he  was  aided  by  his  great  justiciai",  Roger  of  Salis- 
bury. William  Rufus  had  allowed  the  barons  to  usurp  many 
of  the  powers  of  local  government;  Henry  gave  them  back  to 
the  hundred  and  shire  "  courts,"  as  the  moots  were  now  called. 
He  encouraged  suitors  who  failed  to  get  justice  in  these  courts 
to  appeal  to  the  Curia  Regis  at  Westminster,  and  also  induced 
the  great  barons  to  do  the  same  instead  of  deciding  quarrels 
by  private  warfare  or  judicial  combat.  By  the  advice  of  Roger 
of  Salisbury,  he  organized  the  members  of  the  Curia  into  a 
Court  of  the  Exchequer,  to  deal  only  with  fiscal  matters,  and 
sent  these  "Barons  of  the  Exchequer"  on  circuit  to  assess 
the  sums  due  to  the  king.  In  1124,  also,  he  sent  out  a  dep- 
utation from  the  Curia  Regis  which  began  the  system  of 
royal  control  over  criminal  justice.  In  Leicestershire  alone 
A  -S.  Chron-  these  judges  "  hanged  more  thieves  than  had  ever  been 
icle,  1024  executed  within  so  short  a  time,  being  in  all  four  and 
forty  men."  By  the  common  people,  grateful  for  the  restora- 
tion of  order,  Henry  was  hailed  as  the  "  Lion  of  Justice." 
Just  at  this  time  the  subject  of  the  "  investiture  "  of  bishops 

119.  The       ^^^  abbots  was  becoming  a  burning  question  on  the  Conti- 
question  of  o  o  ^  i  •  t 

investiture    nent :   the  Pope  claimed  the  right  to  invest  them  with 


KM. LAND    INDKn     llli:    I.AI'r.R    NoK.MAN    KINCS       1 1'.t 

tlif  syiulxils  «>t  tlieir  ottices,  because  of  tlieir  ecclesiastieal 
(liguitv  ;  the  iinmarelis  t-lainied  the  same  right  heeause  bishops 
were  temporal  nUers.  The  question  was  in  truth  complex 
and  far-reaching:  the  obligations  of  the  bishops  to  the  church 
were  paramount;  yet  they  were  among  the  largest  landholders, 
manv  of  them  kept  large  bodies  of  vassals  in  arms,  and  under 
feudal  ctinditions  it  was  essential  that  such  powerful  subjects 
>hould  be  under  the  control  of  the  sovereign. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  sovereign  was  very  likely,  if  unre- 
strained, to  appoint  to  these  important  positions  favorites 
who  had  not  the  proper  intellectual  and  spiritual  qualifications. 
In  1074  a  synod  instigated  by  the  fearless  Pope  Gregory  VII. 
'  Hildebrand)  issued  its  ultimatum  upon  the  subject:  "If  any 
'<\\e  henceforth  receives  from  the  hand  of  any  lay  person  a 
bishopric  or  an  abbey,  let  him  not  be  considered  an  abbot  or 
a  bishop.  ...  If  an  emperor,  a  king,  a  duke,  or  a  count  .  .  . 
presume  to  give  investiture  of  any  ecclesiastical  dignity,  let 
liim  be  excommunicated."  In  1090  a  council  called  by  Pope 
Urlxm  II.  laid  a  curse  upon  all  ecclesiastics  who  even  took 
the  oath  of  fealty  to  a  lay  sovereign. 

(^n   the   accession   of    Henry    I.,    he    required    Archbishop 

.\n^t'lMl  to  do  homage  for  the  temi)oralities  attached   to  his 

office.      Since    Anselm    had    taken    part   in   the   church    ^go    Henry 

council  of  1090.  he  submitted  to  be  again  exiled  rather   I  s  plan  for 
,'  ,  ,       ,  .  n         ire         ^     investiture 

than  to  oljey  Henry;  but    the  king  was  of   a  different 

t.-mper  fr<»in  William,  and  at  last  came  to  an  agreement  witli 
the  archbishop.  Hisho[»s  wciv  thenceforth  to  be  elected  by  the 
••athedral  <'hapters,  instead  of  being  selected  by  the  state  au- 
thorities :  but  the  election  was  to  be  held  at  the  court,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  king.  The  bishops  thus  elected  wen' 
to  do  homage  to  the  king  for  their  temporalities,  since  thus 
only  could  his  feudal  rights  be  safeg\iarded ;  but  they  were  to 
l)e  invested  with  the  ring  and  the  staff,  the  symbols  of  spirit- 
ual authority,  only  by  the  representatives  of  the  church. 


120 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


Durius    the    eleventh    century    many    reformed    monastic 

orders  were  founded  on  the  Continent,  and  after  the  conquest 

scores  of  monasteries  for  monks  or  nuns  (called  abbeys, 

ofmonasti-    priories,  or  subpriories,  according  to  the  rank  of   their 

cism  governing   officers)   were   founded    in   England.      These 

abbeys  at  once  became  the  intellectual  centers  of  the  age. 

They  sheltered  in  their  guest  houses   alike  the  king   on  his 

royal  progress,  the  knight,  the  traveling   merchant,  and   the 

roving  beggar,  and  thus  gathered  and 
disseminated  every  kind  of  informa- 
tion. Their  carefully  managed  es- 
tates served  as  object  lessons  in 
thorough  and  skillful  farming.  Upon 
them  rested  the  entire  burden  of 
public  charities.  The  monks  aided 
education  and  literary  culture  by 
co}>ying  manuscripts  and  making 
historical  compilations.  To  the  in- 
dustry of  Henry,  Archdeacon  of 
Huntingdon,  Avho  completed  an  His- 
toria  Angloruin  about  1135,  we  owe 
most  of  our  materials  for  construct- 
ing a  history  of  the  times  j  to  the 
monks  of  Peterborough  is  due  our 
From  the  HarieianMSS.,Bi-itish  most  nearly  complete  copy  of  the 
Museum.  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

The  Crusades  caused  the  development  of  a  kindred  move- 
ment in  the   foundation   of   semi-religious  orders  of  military 

knis^hts,   the    Knights    Hospitallers    in   1104,    and    the 
122.  World-  o       '  o  ^  .     . 

linessofthe   Knights  Templars  in  1118.     By  their  wealth  and  their 

monks  q\o^q  .  organization  these  bodies  gained  great  importance 

both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  and  they  soon  became 

worldly   in    spirit.      INIore   important   for   England   were   the 

Cistercian   monks,   who   appeared   there   in   1128;   beginning 


Monk  of  the  Twelfth 
Century. 


r.NCI.ANI)    INOKK    THK    I.AIKIJ    NolJM.W    KINCS       VJl 


as  a  |iiirt'ly  rliaritalilo  hixly,  they  soon  .L:ai)it'tl  for  tlienisclves 
iiliiiost  a  iiioiio|Mily  of  tin*  Houiisliini;  wool  iiidustiv.  Tlie 
monastic  cori»oiations  were  always  disliked 
by  the  secular  clergy,  because  tliey  showed 
their  independence  of  the  local  authorities. 
They  soon  became  wealthy  through  the  gifts 
of  the  pious,  and  their  officers  had  great 
influence  in  political  matters. 

Much  of  Henry's  time  was  spent  in  re- 
peated quarrels  Avith  his  brother  Ivobert. 
and  war  broke  out  between  the  two  in    123.  Second 

1104.     Xormandv  was  invaded ;  in  the       '  Pe^^o^^ 

'  union     of 

battle  of  Tinchcbrai,  1100,  llobert  was         England 
captured  and  imprisoned;   and  Henry  mandv 

became   I')uke   of   Normandy.      After  (1106^ 

A  Kmcht  Tkmim.\r.   , ,  .     ,  1114.  \  1       i'   1  • 

this  he  was  obliged  to  spend  much  of   his 

A\  itii  mantle  to  \tut- 

teotarmor  from  the  time  upoii  the  Continent,  defending  his  do- 
l.eat  of  the  troi.i.-.il  j^^j^j,^^  agaiust  the  attacks  of  the  king  of 
sun. 

France,  and  of  his  neighbors  the  counts  of 

Flanders  and  Anjou.  His  absence  weakt-ned  the  force  of  his 
earlier  reforms,  and  left  England  with  no  defense  against  the 
turbulent  barons. 

Henry  was  anxious  that  his  daughter  Matilda  should  succeed 
him,  and  bound  his  barons  by  three  successive  oaths  to  recog- 
nize her  as  their  .sovereign  at  his  death.     Unfortunately        ^24    Ste- 

for  his  plans,  Matilda  was  living  on  the  Continent,  hav-   pben's usur- 
pation of 
ing    married    (Jeoffrey    Plantagenet,    Count   of    Anjou:      the  throne 

while  her   cousin    Stephen  of    lUois  was   living   at   the  'll35i 

English  court.  Stephen  was  popular,  while  ^latilda's  cause 
suffered  from  the  hereditjiiy  hatred  of  the  Normans  for  Anjou. 
Henry's  plan  therefore  failed.  He  died  suddenly  while  re- 
sisting an  uprising  in  Normandy  in  II.'!.");  and  while  Matilda 
ami  her  husband  were  taking  possession  of  Henry's  Nonuan 
donuiins,  Stephen  .secured  the  supix)rt  of  the  city  of  London, 


122  NOKMAX    FF>UDALISM 

Avon  over  the  barons  at  the  court  in  ^Mne]lestpr,  anil  induced 
his  brother,  the  Bishop  of  Winchester,  to  put  liini  in  posses- 
sion of  the  king's  treasury,  containing  ii  100,000.  ^lean while, 
on  the  news  of  Henry's  death,  England  blazed  into  disorder. 
The  great  state  officials,  dreading  the  effect  of  a  woman's 
rule  under  existing  conditions,  determined  to  support  Ste- 
phen, and  he  was  immediately  crowned  by  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 

The  nineteen  years  of  Stephen's  reign  were  filled  with  the 

strife  which  usually  follows  a  disputed  succession.     Matilda 

125    Char-     ^^  ^^'^^   ^^^^   ^^^  champions    except   her   own   relatives; 

acterof  Stephen,  on  the   contrary,  had   many  adherents,  for  he 

rule  was  personally  brave,  and  as  yet  gave  no  indication  of 

11135-1154)  those   faults    Avhich    made    him    so    unsuccessful    as    a 

ruler.      However,  he  soon  showed'  his  lack  of  administrative 

ability,  and  by  degrees  his  unwise  and   ungrateful  acts  lost 

him  the  good  will  even  of  those  who  had  placed  him  on  the 

throne. 

As  Stephen  began  to  see  that  he  was  losing  ground,  he 
showed  himself  still  more  tactless  than  before :  by  greedy 
demands  for  money  he  soon  alienated  the  clergy,  his  warm- 
est supporters;  he  quarrelled  with  his  justiciars,  and  thus 
cut  down  his  revenues.  To  win  supporters  he  created  many 
new  earldoms,  endowing  them  with  estates  from  the  demesne 
lands  of  the  crown,  with  pensions  paid  directly  from  his 
purse,  or  with  the  fines  levied  within  their  eai'ldoms — all 
measures  which  lessened  the  royal  income.  He  then  at- 
tempted to  recoup  himself  in  part  by  debasing  the  coin  of 
the  realm,  and  thus  injured  the  great  and  growing  merchant 
classes.  Since  the  new  landless  earldoms  could  not  furnish 
many  fighting  men  for  his  armies,  he  antagonized  his  English 
subjects  by  bringing  into  the  kingdom  mercenary  troops,  whose 
wages  added  to  his  already  severe  financial  burden.  The  result 
was  taxation  beyond  the  power  of  the  people  to  bear. 


KNcLANi)  rNi)i:i:   rm:  i.Air.u  N(»i;man  KiN(i.s     1-23 

While  inteiiKil  affairs  were  thus  disorganized,  Stephen  was 
constantly  i-alled  upon  to  resist  the  friends  of  Matilda,  includ- 
ing her  uni'le  David,  the  king  of  Scotland,  and  the  earls  126    Strug- 

of  CUoueester  and  of  Hereford.     In  1138  the  Scots  were      &le  for  the 

crown 
repulsed  at  the   JJattle  of  the  Standard,  near  Xorlhal-  (1138  1153; 

lerton  ;  but  Steidien  was  compelled  to  buy  peace  by  granting  the 

county  of  Xorthunilierland  to  David's  son  to  l>e  held  as  a  lief. 

In  1139  even  the  justiciar,  Stephen's  own  brotlier  (the  Bishop 


Nknvakk  Castlk. 
Built  l»y  tlic  Bi>lii>|)  of  Limi.ln  iliiriiii;  tlic  rt'i;,'ii  nf  Stoplion. 

of  Winchester),  went  over  to  Matilda.  It  would  be  fruitless 
to  follow  the  contest  in  detail.  For  three  years  Matilda's 
cause  was  in  the  ascendant;  Stephen  was  fov  a  time  a  prisoner 
in  111(1.  but  in  1112  the  tide  turned,  and  Matilda's  fortunes 
again  declined. 

The  actual  struggles  of  the  two  contending  armies  had  less 
effect  upon  England  tlian  did  the  endless  quarrels  and  the 
invasions  of  per.sonal  rights  indulged  in  by  individual  barons 
tinder  cover  of  the  war.  Kvery  petty  lord  built  for  himself  a 
castle  or  stronghold  in  the  strongest  position  on  his  domains. 


124  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

Heiresses  were  abducted,  luanors  were  sacked,  their  owners 
were  held  for  ransom,  towns  were  raided  and  burned.  "  If 
three  men  came  riding  into  a  town,  all  the  inhabitants  fled." 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  the  helpless  victims  of  the  rapacity 
and  cruelty  of  the  feudal  classes  came  to  believe  that  (in 
the  words  of  the  chronicler)  "Christ  and  his  saints  were 
asleep '"  ?  After  eighteen  years  all  parties  concerned  were 
exhausted;  and  the  church  seized  the  first  opportunity  to 
mediate  between  the  contestants. 

This  opportunity  came  upon  the  death  of  Stephen's  only 
grown  son;  and  the  Treaty  of  Wallingford  (November,  1153) 
127    Com-     P^^^  ^"  ^^^  ^o  hostilities.     Matilda  was  ambitious  rather 
promise  on    fQ^.   i^^y   children    than    for   herself,    and    Stephen   Avas 
Henry  Plan-    ,       ,  ,  i         •    ^  •    n  ■  .^ 

tagenet  broken   by   age   and    misrortunes,    especially    since    the 

(1153)  recent  death  of  his  son  Eustace,  to  whom  he  had  hoped 

to  transmit  the  crown.  It  was  therefore  agreed  that  he  should 
rule  until  his  death,  and  that  the  crown  should  then  descend 
to  Matilda's  son  Henry,  now  a  young  man  of  twenty  years. 
The  other  terms  of  the  treaty  were  directed  toward  undoing 
the  evils  wrought  during  the  period  of  anarch}'.  Stephen,  aged 
more  by  care  and  trouble  than  by  disease,  died  within  a  year, 
leaving  the  crown  and  the  duty  of  promoting  these  reforms 
to  Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  English  line  of  Plantagenets. 


The  sixty-seven  years  from  the  death  of  William  I.  to  the 
accession  of  Henry  Plantagenet  in  1154  cover  the  reigns  of 
128    Sum-     ^^®  Conqueror's  sons,  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I.,  and 
mary  of  his  grandson  Stephen.     Two  of  the  three  reigns  were 

marked  by  tests  of  strength  between  sovereign  and  vassals 
—  the  tenants  in  chief  aiming  to  destroy  the  centralized  sys- 
tem created  by  William  I.,  and  thus  to  secure  for  themselves 
irresponsible  powers  such  as  were  enjoyed  by  the  princes  of 
France  and  Germany.  This  state  of  aft'airs  was  due  partly 
to  the  character  of  the  monarchs,  and  partly  to  their  deter- 


r.N(;i.AM)  rNDKK   riir.  i.Air.i{  norman  kincs     i-_';> 

inination  to  rule  both  En.t,'lauil  and  Xonuaiidy.  'Vha  attempt 
to  liolil  and  ^iivt'in  Ixitli  regions  resulted  in  a  feeble  hold  uitoii 
eaeh. 

Of  the  three  nionarejis,  only  Henry  I.  showed  genuine  states- 
inanship,  and  liecause  of  the  weakness  of  his  successor,  only- 
two  of  his  aets  i)roilueed  lasting  results.  His  settlement  of 
the  question  of  investiture  left  the  ehureh  in  a  strong  posi- 
tion, freed  from  undue  control  by  the  state;  and  his  grant 
of  a  (diarter  served  as  a  precedent  for  similar  grants  by  later 
monarchs.  These  charters,  first  conceived  as  grants  from  an 
individual  sovereign  to  his  subjects,  and  therefore  termina- 
ting with  his  life,  came  in  time  to  be  constitutional  docu- 
ments eujbodying  the  rights  of  the  peojtle  by  "  immemorial 
custom  "  —  in  the  eyes  of  an  Englishman  the  strongest  possible 
authority. 

TOPICS 

(1)  NVliat  modern  conditions  w.uild  make  it  easier  for  one  man  Sugrgrestive 
to  rule  Normandy  and  England  now  tlian  in  tlie  tweiftii  century  '•  ^°P'*=^ 
(2)  What  important  obstacles  would  still  exist  ?  (8)  Show  wiiy  the 
possession  of  the  royal  treasury  wa.s  especially  im|)ortant  to  Henry 
and  Stephen.  (4)  Estimate  the  approximate  value  of  Henry's 
treasure  to-tlay,  and  explain  tiie  decrea.se  in  the  purchasing  power 
of  money.  (5)  Define  and  de.scribe  a  charter,  with  reference  to 
its  source,  its  purpose,  it«  operation,  ius  revocability.  (6)  Compare 
tlie  .status  of  one  of  Stephen's  "  fi.scal  earls'"  with  that  of  an  earl 
treated  by  William  I.  (7)  .Mention  .several  rea.sons  why  Henry's 
selection  of  Matilda  as  his  succe.s.sor  wjus  unwise.  (H)  Show  how 
and  why  the  coinaije  would  become  debitsed  during  the  period  of 
anarchy. 

(!>)  Ex|ilain  the  significance  of  Henry  I.'s  titles,  ((()  The  Lion  of  Search 
.Fiistice,  il.)  Henry  Heauclerc,  (10)  The  relations  between  Anjou  *°P"=* 
and  Blois,  and  their  effect  upon  English  history.  (11)  The  forest 
laws  ;  their  purpose  and  their  operation,  beneficent  and  harmful. 
(12)  The  extension  of  the  king's  feudal  right.s  under  William 
Kufu.s.  (13)  The  character  and  career  of  An.selm.  (14)  The 
struggle  over  investiture  on  the  Tontinent.  (I'j)  The  value  of  a 
twelfth-century  matmsrript,  and  the  rejtsons  therefor.  (1(J)  The 
story  of  the  Whitf  Ship  of  Henry  I.  (17)  Life  in  a  mediiuval 
abbey.     (18)  A  brief  hi.story  of  "the  Temple,"  in  London. 


126 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


REFERENCES 


Geography 


Secondary- 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


See  maps,  pp.  77,  i)4  ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlns,  maps  xvii.  liii.  liv.  ; 
Mackiiider,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas,  208-211  ;  Pearson,  His- 
torical Maps  of  England,  4i)-53;  Reich,  New  Students''  Atlas, 
map  8. 

Bright,  History  of  Englatid,  I.  56-88  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  His- 
tory, chs.  viii.  ix.  ;  Kansoiiie,  Advanced  History,  103-134  ;  Green, 
Short  Histoi-y,  89-104.  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  ii.  chs. 
i.  ii.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England,  bk.  il.  chs.  ii.-iv.  ; 
Brewer,  Studenfs  Hume,  ch.  vi.  ;  Lingard,  History  of  England,  I. 
chs.  ix.-xi.  ;  Ramsay,  Foundations  of  England,  II.  chs.  xi.-xxviii. ; 
Freeman,  History  of  William  Rufus ;  Stubbs,  The  Early  Plantag- 
enets,  chs.  i.  ii.,  —  Select  Charters,  19-21, — Constitutional  History, 
I.  ch.  X.  ;  Taswell-Langinead,  Constitutional  History,  03-73  ;  Nor- 
gate,  England  binder  the  Angevin  Kings,  I.  chs.  i.  v.-viii. ;  Johnson, 
Hie  Xormans  in  Europe,  chs.  xv.  xvi.-;  Edwaixls,   Wales,  ch.  v. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  7-11  ;  Colby,  Selec- 
tions from  the  Sources,  nos.  17-20  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book,  nos. 
17,  18  ;  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  ch.  i.  ;  Henderson,  Select  Doczt- 
ments,  361-360;  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  1087-1154;  William  of 
Malmesbury,  History  of  English  Kings,  bks.  iv.  v.  ;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  xviii.-xxii.  See  New  England 
History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  239,  —  Historical  Sources, 
147-151. 

Crawford.  Via  Crucis  ;  Landor,  Acts  and  Scenes  ("  Walter  Tyrrel 
and  William  Rufus  ")  ;  Macfarlane,  The  Legend  of  Blading  Abbey  ; 
Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  4.5-62. 


NORMAN   KINGS 

Time  ijcale,  50  years  to  one  Inch 


q?g- -  WILLIAM  irJT^ '°'» 


PLANTACiENET  KINGS       iobt^ 

Time  MMlf.  50,vours  u>  one  inch 

I  too 


M3i^ 


-I  15 


I  189 
I  199 


'26  ~  ^HENRY  ir.^Eleanor 

|_uf  JuiuUusi 


E 


ofTrev      1 

113*  ■ 1 


Henry      OeofTrev 
„,"d.n«      —J.  113* 
"         ^    RICHARD  I 


WILLIAM  II. 

Rufui 


Ituben 

Duk«  uf  Nunnajidj 


Adda 

m.  Stephen 

-  Count  uf  Bloll  — 


>24- Matllda=HEWRY  I. 


.^(ieofTrey  _=Mutild»- 


Plantageiiet 

"Count  of  An;ou " 


STEPHEN  - 

1 1  ISO 


JOHN 


HENRY  II. Eustace 

(Sm  nut  labtou  left)  ■*■  "" 


>30- 


EDWARD  I. 


_£dmuod. 


f3^ 


EDWARD  11.^  Isabella 


>W 


Enrt  of  LAB<«Mrr 


Henry 


Earl  of  LuM-sKv 


Uelirj' 


EDWARD  III. 


-The  Black  I'rtnce  —Lionel 

*.  l»I6  Dnko  of  Clu« 


DnkaofTuik 


"••  '.*"  John  ofUaunt 

I>«k«« 


>33_       -RICHARD  IL 


PhHIppa 


127 


-HENRY  IV.  ip.  ail 


H40P 


CHAPTER   IX. 

RESTORATION   OF   ORDER  (1154-1199) 

Hekry  Plant agexet  (Henry  11.)  was  a  constructive  states- 
man of  the  first  rank,  and  during  his  long  reign  of  thirty- 

129.  Char-  five  years  (1154-1189)  he  brought  about  a  series  of 
Henrv°II  's  Political,  military,  judicial,  and  ecclesiastical  reforms, 
reign  although  hampered  by  the  difficulty  of  ruling  over  vast 

and  widely  separated  domains.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne 
at  twenty-one  years  of  age  he  was  ruler  over  four  realms : 
(1)  England,  west  to  the  Welsh  marches  and  north  to  the 
Cheviots ;  (2)  Normandy,  with  its  dependent  province  of 
Brittany  (map  p.  77),  inherited  through  his  mother  from 
William  the  Conqueror ;  (3)  the  provinces  of  Anjou,  Maine, 
and  Touraine,  inherited  from  his  father,  Geoffrey  Plantagenet ; 
(4)  Aquitaine,  —  including  (besides  the  original  duohy,  later 
called  Guienne)  also  Poitou,  Gascony,  and  some  smaller  neigh- 
boring districts,  —  acquired  through  his  marriage  with  Eleanor 
of  Aquitaine.  Unfortunately  his  Continental  possessions 
brought  him  and  his  English  kingdom  many  troubles,  for  both 
Louis  Vll.  of  France  and  his  successor  Philip  Augustus  made 
it  a  feature  of  their  policy  to  stir  up  insurrections  in  different 
parts  of  his  domains. 

Nevertheless    Henry    could    not   resist    the    temptation    to 
extend    his  territories  still    more  widely.     During   the  dozen 

130.  Con-  years  following  his  accession,  he  forced  both  the  Welsh 
quests  m  evinces  and  the  king  of  the  Scots  U)  do  him  homage.  He 
Ireland  then  turned  his  attention  to  Ireland,  which  he  planned 

to  conquer  and  convert  into  a  kingdom  for  his  youngest  son, 

128 


restiii;a  I  loN  (ir  (ii{i)i;i;  ( ii.'.i-iuii)) 


12!t 


John.     Separated  from   I'.iitaiu  by  a  t-hannd  fmm  tliirteeii  to 
one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  miles  wide,  and  harassed  by  con- 
tinual piratical  raids, 
Ireland  had  lagged  far 
behind  England  in  her 
develo}»nient.     Up  to 
the    seventh    century 
her    peo})le    had    not 
generally     abandoned 
the    pastoral    for   the 
agricultural    type    of 
life;  then  Danish  in- 
vaders   occupied     the  Ma\..k  Hoise  nkak  Wklsh  Bukdkk. 
entire    eastern    coast;  Built  in  lloO,  at  Millichope,  Shropshire, 
later,  native  chieftains  reduced  the  Danes  to  subjection,  and 
carried  on  the  Irish  sept  or  elan  system  of  tribal  organization. 

In  11()0  a  Norman  adventurer  named  Richard  de  Clare, 
later  called  Strongbow,  was  encouraged  by  Henry  to  inter- 
fere in  a  quarrel  between  factions  of  the  Irish.  "Within  two 
years  Strongbow  married  the  daughter  of  the  ''  king ''  of 
Leinster,  succeeded  to  his  possessions,  and  brought  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  Ireland  under  English  control,  so  that 
Henry  was  able  to  visit  it  and  receive  the  submission  of 
certain  kings  and  bishops.  Five  years  more  of  military  opera- 
tions failed  to  reduce  the  rest  of  the  island ;  and  Henry  decided 
to  copy  the  policy  of  William  I.,  by  granting  the  still  uiicon- 
quered  provinces  of  In-land  to  various  vassals  on  condititju  uf 
fealty  to  I'rince  .lolin.  Thus  a  quant-l  botwi-cn  Irishmen 
aided  the  first  of  the  many  invasions  by  which  this  niiliapi>y 
island  was  brought  under  the  dominion  of  selfish  and  tyrannous 
landowners,  alien  in  race,  alien  in  spirit,  alien  in  motive,  from 
tho.se  whom  they  governed. 

At  his  aeeession  Henry  had  given  assurance  of  his  intention 
to  rule  equitably  by  issuing  a  charter  granting  and  contirming 


130  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

all  the  liberties  and  customs  that  his  grandfather,  the  Lion  of 

Justice,  had  granted,  and  promising  to  abolish  all  evil  customs 

,„,    „  and  to  maintain  order  among  the  barons.     Not  only  did 

131.  Ees-  °        _  _       _  -^ 

toration  of  he  do  this,  but  through  his  genius  for  organization  he 
"^  ^^  brought  about  many  improvements  in  the  law,  methods 

of  justice,  and  means  of  national  defense. 

(1)  The  first  necessity  was  the  better  ordering  of  the  baron- 
age ;  he  began  by  pulling  down  the  thousand  and  more  unau- 
thorized castles  l)uilt  during  the  previous  reigns,  abolishing 
the  earldoms  recently  created  by  Stephen,  and  resuming  the 
alienated  crown  lands.  He  then  turned  to  constructive  work, 
aided  in  most  cases  by  the  approval  of  the  Great  Council. 
This  body  was  summoned  at  least  twice  or  thrice  a  year 
throughout  his  reign,  except  during  his  many  and  long 
absences  upon  the  Continent. 

(2)  A  reform  partly  fiscal,  partly  military,  was  the  accept- 
ance of  "  scutage "  payments  instead  of  actual  knight  service 

132  Henry  (§  ^''^)-  ^^  theory,  all  landholders  were  bound  to  furnish 
II. 's  device  on  demand  armed  and  mounted  warriors  equal  in  number 
tage"  to  the  knights'  fees  which  they  held;  but  it  waspracti- 

(1156-1159)  cally  impossible  for  churchmen  to  fulfill  this  ojjligation. 
In  1156  Henry  required  the  bishops  to  pay  a  sum  in  cash  for 
each  scutum  (shield-bearing  knight)  that  they  failed  to  furnish. 
Three  years  later,  he  called  the  feudal  array  to  attend  him  on 
an  expedition  to  southern  France,  and  as  the  knights  were 
unwilling  to  go  beyond  seas,  he  accepted  from  them  also  a 
"  scutage  "  payment  of  two  marks  (26s.  Sd.)  a  man  in  lieu  of 
service.  With  the  £80,000  thus  raised,  he  easily  secured 
mercenaries  for  his  foreign  wars.  The  change  thus  intro- 
duced was  far-reaching,  for  through  the  device  of  scutage 
the  barons  (unlike  the  corresponding  class  in  France)  became 
accustomed  to  bear  their  share  of  the  national  burdens,  and 
as  taxpayers  felt  the  same  interests  as  those  of  the  common 
people.     Moreover,  they  lost   the   habit   of   fighting,  and  so 


HESTOUATION    OF   (iKDl-.K   (^llJ4-n<nt)  131 

were  less  able  to  stand  ai^jainst  Henry's  strongly  centralized 
,'overnnient. 

(.S)    Twenty -two  years  later,  he  brought  about  a  second  mili- 
tary reform   by   reviving  and   reorganizing   the   old   English 
t'yrd,  or  national  militia;  that  body  could  be  used  for        ^^^    ^^ 
the  support  of  the  sheriff  in  enforcing  obedience  to  the    vival  of  the 
law,  as  well  as  for  defense  against  invasion.    By  the  pro-  ^ 

visions  of  the  Assize  (ordinance)  of  Arms  (1181),  every  freeman 
was  bound  to  procure  and  keep  for  service  suitable  weapons  of 
the  most  modern  type  then  in  use.  "  Let  every  holder  of  one 
knight's  fee  own  a  coat  of  mail,  a  helmet,  a  shield,  and  a  lance, 
.  .  .  and  likewise  every  layman  worth  sixteen  marks  in  rent 
or  chattels.  .  .  .  Let  every  layman  worth  ten  marks  own  a 
hauberk,^  an  iron  headpiece,  and  a  lance.  And  let  all  burghers 
and  freemen,  without  exception,  own  a  wambais,-  an  iron  head- 
piece, and  a  lance."  These  eqxiipments  were  never  to  be  sold 
or  pledged,  for  they  had  to  be  ready  for  service  whenever  the 
militia  should  be  summoned  l>y  the  sheriff. 

(4)  The  administration  of  justice  had  hitherto  been  ham- 
pered by  the  fact  that  the  existing  laws  of  England  were 
derived  partly  from  the  tjld  coinnum  law,  partly  from 

feudal   sources,  and    partly  from    the   civil   law  of   the  cial  re- 

church.      Henry  caused    these   to   be   collected,   harmo- 
nized, and  reduced  to  order. 

(5)  Taking  a  hint  fronx  his  grandfather,  Henry  I.,  he  divided 
the  country  into  six  circuits,  and  appointed  a  permanent  corps 
of  circuit  judges  ( 117.'5-117<») ;  and  he  still  further  separated 
the  Court  of  the  Exchequer  fiom  the  Curia  Regis.  Ife  was 
also  the  first  monarch  to  set  apart  a  lujdy  from  the  Curia  to 
sit  regularly  on  civil  and  criminal  cases,  as  the  Court  of  the 
King's  Hench  (1178). 

The  effect  of  these  reforms  was  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  king.     In  the  tirst  i)lace,  they  led  the  jjcople  to  look  more 
1  A  coat  of  ring-tnuil.  -  -V  imdded  coat. 


132 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


and  more  to  the  king  and   liis   council   for  justice  and  pro- 
'         tection  ;    in   the   second   place,  they  put  the  more  important 

judicial  decisions  into  the  hands  of  a  staff  of  well  instructed 

lawyers,  who  performed  their  duties  under  the  immediate  eye 

of  the  monarch. 

(G)    In  Henry's  reign,  too,  was  laid  the  foundation  of   the 

jury  system  in  court  cases,  which  developed  from  a  practice 
135  The  ^^  ^^^6  earlier  Norman  kings  when  they  wanted  in- 
jury system   formation    about    local    customs,    taxable    property,    etc. 

The   jury  developed   in   two   forms.      The  first,  the  Jury  of 

Presentment    (the    modern    grand    jury),    was    charged    with 

the  duty  of  bringing  criminals  to  trial  in  the 

hundred  court ;  the  second,  the  Jury  of  llecogni- 

tors  (the  modern  petty  jury), 

acted  at  first  as  witnesses  to 

the  fact,  not  as  weighers  of 

evidence  ;  and  was  for  a  time 

busy  chiefly  in  fiscal  cases. 

For   example,  the   facts    re- 
corded  in   Domesday   Book 

were     ascertained     through 

twelve      recognitors ;       and 

Henry  II.  applied  the  jury 

system  first  to  disputes  over 

land,  and  later  to  other  cases. 

The    Assize    of     Clarendon 

(1166)   decreed  that   twelve 

recognitors  from  the  vicinity 

where     the     dispute     arose 

should  be  chosen  by  four  knights  selected  by  the  sheriff  of 

the  comity,  to  decide  the  question  at  issue  fairly  upon  their 

knowledge  and  the  evidence  presented.     Such  trials  by  jury 

gradually  superseded  the  older  trials  by  ordeal,  by  battle,  and 

by  compurgation. 


Trial  by  Battle. 

From  an  illuniinated  letter,  fourteenth 
century. 


KKSinUAl'lON    (>F    oKDKK   (  1 1".4-1 1'.Utj  133 

Ilemy  was  anxious  to  briiijj  chuii-h  ami  state  into  better 
relations  and  j)articularly  to  do  justice  upon  ecflesiasties  as 

well  as  on  lavmen  who  committed  crimes.      He  therefore   ,„„    „ 

136.  Henry 

called  a  council  at  Clarendon  in  11G4,  and  made  the  entire     li  and  the 
body  of  "  archbishops  and  bishops,  earls  and  barons,  and  ^  "^ 

most  noble  and  ancient  men  in  the  kingdom  "  a  body  of  recog- 
nitors to  determine  '•  some  part  of  the  customs,  liberties,  and 
dignities''  prevailing  in  the  time  of  Henry  I.  Their  report, 
called  tlic  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  contained  sixteen  arti- 
cles, many  of  which  tended  to  restrict  the  rights  claimed  by 
the  clergy. 

Hitherto  the  church  had  claimed  that  only  the  ecclesiastical 
(;ourts  might  try  ''  clerks  "  (members  of  the  clergy),  but  these 
courts  generally  imposed  only  slight  penalties  or  none,  so  that 
clerical  offenders  stood  in  but  little  fear  of  the  law.  The 
( "onstitutions  of  Clarendon  provided  that  in  certain  kinds  of 
^iiits  clerks  must  plead  in  the  king's  courts  like  ordinary 
•  itizens ;  and  lay  inspectors  were  appointed  to  see  that  justice 
was  done  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Other  clauses  forbade  the 
excommunication  of  the  king's  otticers  and  immediate  vassals 
without  his  consent ;  and  still  others  confirmed  former  arrange- 
ments about  investiture  and  ecclesiastical  appeals.  Though 
these  provisions  were  clearly  not  intended  to  work  any  injustice 
to  the  church,  the  church  was  jealous  of  even  an  apparent 
encroachment  upon  its  powers ;  and  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon  led  to  a  seven  years'  quarnd  between  Henry  1 1, 
and  Thomas  a  Hecket,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Becket.  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant  of  Norman 
descent.     He  rapidly  rose  in  the  service  of  the  church,  and  like 

other  able  churchmen  he  was  drafted  into  the  service  of   ,„„    „ 

137.  Henry 

the  state,  bring  made  chancelbir  of  thr  kingdom  shortly  II  and 

after  Hfury's  accession.      Henry  made  him  .\rchbishopof 
< 'anterliurv.  hoping  f<»r  aid  in  his  .schemes  for  ehnri'h  reform; 
liut  from  the  tirst  Becket  acted  as  a  defender  of  the  existing 


134  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

rights  of  the  chur(!h  against  all  change.  It  is  hard  to 
determine  how  far  he  was  honest  in  taking  this  attitude. 
More  than  once  he  behaved  so  arrogantly,  and  resorted  to  such 
doubtful  methods,  that  it  is  hard  to  believe  him  sincere  at 
heart ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  bore  disgrace,  deprivation,  exile, 
and  final  martyrdom  in  defense  of  his  fundamental  position  — 
no  weak  proofs  of  single-hearted  devotion  to  a  cause. 

A   quarrel    early  arose   between  the  king  and  his  minister 

over  Henry's  attempt  to  collect  the  Danegeld  tax  on  the  lands 

138    Con-       ^^   *^^®    clergy.      The    officers    of    the    church,    although 

troversy        perfectly  willing  to   levy   all   the   money  required  and 

Becket  make   a   gift  of  it  to  the  state,  denied  that  they  were 

U 163-1 170)   subject  to  ordinary  taxation,  and  Becket  flatly  refused  to 

pay  the  Danegeld.     "  The  king  in  anger  replied,  '  By  the  eyes 

of  God,  it  shall  be  given  as  revenue,  and  it  shall  be  entered  in 

Stubbs,  the    king's  accounts.'  .  .  .      Becket  replied,  *My  Lord 

Constitu-        king,  by  the  reverence  of  the  eyes  by  which  you  have 

tiotud  His-  b!      J  ^  J  J  J 

tory,  I.  500     sworn,  it  shall  not  be  given  from  my  land,  and  from  the 
rights  of  the  Church  not  a  penny.'" 

A  second  cause  of  quarrel  arose  when  Becket,  after  having 
once  approved  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  wit^idrew  his 
acceptance  and  thus  roused  the  bitter  anger  of  the  king. 
After  six  months  of  strained  relations,  the  quarrel  became  so 
bitter  that  Becket  fled  :^rom  England  in  disguise  and  took 
refuge,  first  with  the  Pope,  and  later  with  Louis  YIl.  of 
France. 

Through  the  intervention  of  the  Pope,  Becket  was  allowed 

to  return  to  England  after  six  years  of  exile.     But  his  spirit 

139.  Mur-     was  still  unbroken.     Henry,  while  holding  court  in  ISTor- 

B^^k^t  mandy,  learned  with   indignation  that  the   proud  arch- 

(1170)  bishop    had    used    his    newly    recovered    authority    to 

excommunicate    all    the    bishops   who    supported   the    king's 

schemes.     In  a  characteristic  outburst  of  passion  he  exclaimed, 

"Will  all  my  servants  stand  by  and  see  me  thus  defied  by  one 


RKSTOUATloX   OF   nUDF.n    (1154-1100) 


1?.') 


wliDiii  I  iiiysoH'  huvi'  laisod  fnuii  itovt-rty  to  wnillli  ami  power? 
Will  lu)  Hiu'  rid  iiie.  of  this  troiiblesoine  cUtU  ".' "'  In  tlii's»^ 
wild  words  four  private  eneiiiies  of  lieeket  saw  their  opportu- 
nity to  wreak  vengeance  upon  liiiu  with  impunity.  They 
hastened  to  En;j:land  and,  on  December  29,  1170,  they 
murdered  Becket  before  the  altar  of  Saint  Benedict  in  his  own 
cathedral  of  Canterbury.  Henry,  aghast  at  the  effect  of  his 
thoughtless  words,  appealed  to  the  Pope  for  absolution  for  his 


Dkath  of  Bkckkt. 

From  tlie  m:ir:,'iii  of  a  fourteenth  reiuury  jisalter. 

-in.  After  two  years  of  delay,  and  appropriate  acts  of 
humiliation  on  the  part  of  the  king,  the  absolution  was 
'-.'ranted,  but  the  victim  of  his  fury  w:)<  inionized  as  a  saint 
:uhI  martyr. 

The   dreadful    outcome   of   this   (puirrcl    obscured   the  real 
matter  at  issue.     It    is  now  very  clear  that  Henry's  rcfornis 
tended    not    only     to    the    gofMl    of    the     kingdom     as    140   Merits 
a    whole,    but  also  to    the   purititation    and    better    gov-   ggcket  c^* 
••rnment   of    the    church  ;     and    since    the   (.'onstitutions         troversy 
of   Clarendon     remained    legally     valid,    although    they    were 
not  enforced  in   practiee.  the  victory    niay    be    said  to    have 


136  NORMAN  FEUDALISM 

been   with   the    monarch.      The  problem  of  church  and  state' 
was    so   complex  that  it  could  not  be  solved  until  each  party 
had  learned  to  be  less  tenacious  of  its  powers  and  more  sen- 
sible of  its  responsibilities. 

Throughout  his  long  reign,  Henry  found  himself  in  difficul- 
ties because  of  his  feudal  relations  in  France  ;  and  in  luuner- 

ous  wars  he  took  the   field    against  his  foes.      In   the 

141.  Death  ,  .  ^       j,       ^       ■. 

of  Henry  II.    latter   part   of  his   reign,  his   s6ns,  greedy   tor  territory 

^^^^^^  and  power,  joined  his  enemies  in  several  attempts  to  seize 

portions  of  his  domains.  The  labor  and  distress  resulting 
from  this  contest  exhausted  the  rapidly  failing  strength  of 
the  king,  and  he  died  in  July,  1189,  heart-broken  at  dis- 
covering the  treason  of  his  youngest  son,  John,  whom  he  had 
believed  to  be  loyal  to  his  cause.  He  bequeathed  his  king- 
dom entire  to  his  eldest  surviving  son,  Eichard. 

Richard  I.,  know^n  as  Coeur  de  Lion  (the  "  Lion-Hearted  "), 
reigned  as  king  of  England  for  ten  years,  although  he  can 

142.  Reign  not  be  said  to  have  ruled.  From  the  beginning  he  was 
°f  ■^i°i^Q^'^^  interested  chiefly  in  his  Continental  possessions  and  in  the 
1199)  cause  of  the  Crusades;  not  in  his  English  kingdom.  Dur- 
ing his  entire  reign  he  was  in  England  less  than  a  single  year, 
and  the  government  of  the  country  was  intrusted  to  various 
officers,  notably  William  Longchamp,  Bishop  of  Ely  and  after- 
ward chancellor,  Hubert  Walter,  and  Geoffrey  Fitz-Peter.  The 
period  was  one  of  order  and  progress  because  these  men  carried 
on  the  traditions  of  systematic  administration  which  they  had 
received  from  Henry  II. 

Richard  was  personally  brave,  chivalric,  and  fond  of  adven- 
ture.    The  Third  Crusade,  organized  to  rescue  Jerusalem  (re- 
cently conquered  by  the  sultan  Saladin),  aroused  in  him 

143.  Rich-  J  H  J  /' 

ardl.  asa      such  lively  interest  that  he  hastened  to   ta.ke  the    cru- 

crusader        gader's  vow.     To  secure  the  large  sum  of  money  needed 

for  equipping  and  maintaining  his  army  he  sold  a])pointments 

to  the  offices  of  sheriff  and  justiciar,  sold  to  the  King  of  Scots 


Rl^sTuliArioN   OF   ORDKH    (1104-1199) 


137 


absolution  from  an  oath  of  homage  made  to  Henrj-  II.,  sold 
concessions  to  the  church  and  to  individual  prelates,  and 
sold  charters  of  privileges  to  many  prosperous  cities  and 
towns.  His  exploits  while  on  this  crusade  have  made  him 
a  favorite  figure  in  romance,  but  as  a  whole  the  expedition 
achieved  nothing  of  importance. 

Richard  was  shipwrecked  on  the  way 
home,  and  taken  captive  by  his  enemy 
Duke  Leopold  of  Austria,  and  delivered 
to  the  Emperor  Henry  V'l.  As  Richard 
was  the  brother-in-law  of  Henry  the  Lion 
of  Saxony,  the  Emperor's  chief  rival  in 
German  political  struggles,  he  was  held 
for  more  than  a  year  in  captivity,  and  was 
finally  released  only  on  condition  that  he 
should  pay  a  ransom  equivalent  to  the 
present  value  of  ten  million  dollars.  [To 
obtain  the  required  sum,  the  justiciars  f" 
strained  the  financial  resom-ces  of  his 
English  domains  to  the  utmost;  the  knights 
l)aid  scutage  tax,  the  towns  and  demesne 
lands  were  heavily  assessed,  every  lesser 
freeholder  jiaid  in  proportion  to  his  ability, 
the  Cistercian  monks  contributed  a  large 
proportion  of  the  jjrofits  from  their  wool, 
and  the  people,  clergy  and  laymen  alike,     Richard  I.  in  Prison. 

were  compelled  to  pay  one  fourth  of  their     From  an  illuminated 

.  f.^ 11  1  thirteenth  ceiitiirv  MS. 

'  iitire  moval)le  goods. 

While    Richard   was   in    tlie   toils   of   his   enemies   abroad, 

his  brother  John   in   England   was    leagued   with    his  enemy 

and  rival   Philip  Augustus  of  France,  to  undermine  his   ,,,     „     ^ 

,    ,  144     Death 

jKAver;    and    he   even   offered   the    Emperor   d^L'O.OOO   a     of  Richard 

month  to  detain  him  in  captivity.      Richard  arrived  in        ^  ^^^^ 

I'.iighiiid   only  just   in    time  to  thwart  John's   intrigues,  and 


138 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


after  raising  fresh  sums 
by  levying  severe  fines  on 
the  conspirators,  by  re- 
newed sale  of  privileges 
and  offices,  and  by  a  gen- 
eral tax,  he  hastened  to 
France  to  engage  in  war 
with  Philip.  In  France 
his  career  was  cut  short 
while  he  was  engaged  in 
a  petty  war  with  one  of 
his  vassals,  and  he  died 
in  1199. 


DkATH    UK    KiCllAUD   I. 

From  an  illuminated  thirteenth  centurj^  MS. 


The  progress  made  dur- 
ing the  half  century  cov- 

145.  Sum-     ei'i"g  the  reigns  of 

mary  Henry   II.   and   his 

son  Richard  was  due  al- 
most entirely  to  the  states- 
manship of  Henry  II.,  who,  in  a  long  reign  of  thirty-five  years, 
was  able  to  establish  certain  reforms  so  firmly  that  they  with- 
stood even  the  evils  caused  by  Richard's  absentee  rule.  His 
greatest  success  was  the  setting  up  of  a  strongly  centralized 
government ;  to  this  end,  he  weakened  the  military  strength  of 
his  vassals  by  the  device  of  scutage,  and  he  lessened  their  local 
importance  by  forcing  his  circuit  judges  into  their  courts  for 
the  trial  of  cases,  and  by  allowing  appeals  from  their  courts  to 
his  own  higher  authority  at  Westminster.  Indeed,  he  went 
so  far  toward  absolutism  that  Glanville  (author  of  the  first 
treatise  on  English  law,  1181)  declares,  "whatever  he  willed 
had  the  force  of  law."  At  the  same  time  he  gave  the  people  a 
share  in  the  administration  of  justice,  as  jurymen  in  fiscal  and 
political  cases,  and  was  thus   the  first   English   monarch  to 


RESTORATION   OF   OKDKK    (n'.4-lllK)) 


l:V.t 


recoguize  clearly  that  the  people  should  have  an  active  share  in 
carrying  out  the  laws  by  which  they  are  governed.  This  prin- 
ciple logically  pointed  to  the  admission  of  the  freemen  to  a 
share  in  the  making  of  those  laws,  but  for  some  time  to  come 
all  progress  depended  on  the  only  class  which  had  sufficient 
coherence  and  strength  to  make  itself  felt — the  baronage. 
This  party  had  hitherto  often  struggled  to  subvert  orderly 
government ;  it  was  henceforth  to  struggle  against  encroach- 
ments upon  its  rights. 

TOPICS 

(I)  Compare  Henry's  methods  in  Irt'laml  witli  those  of  William    Suggestive 
the  Conqueror  in  the  English  marches.     (2;  Dehne  accurately  and    *°P''^^ 
fully  a  knight's  fee.      (3)  What  advantages  did  a  mercenary  force 

possess  over  a  regular  feudal  levy  ?  What  counter  advantages 
had  a  feudal  force  ?  (4)  In  case  of  a  civil  struggle  between  king 
and  barons,  to  which  party  would  the  membere  of  the  militia 
probably  ally  theui-selves,  and  why  ?  (.5)  Why  was  the  early  jury 
system  especially  applicable  to  suit.s  over  the  ownership  of  land  ? 
(6)  Wiiy  was  the  sheriff  generally  instructed  to  impanel  knights 
as  jurj-men  ?  (7)  Why  was  it  necessary  to  forbid  the  excom- 
munication of  the  king's  officers  without  his  consent  ?  (8)  Why- 
did  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  forbid  the  consecration  of  a 
villein  without  his  lord's  consent  ?  (0)  On  what  grounds  did 
Becket's  nuutlerers  defend  themselves  ?  (10)  Origin  of  the  name 
Plantagenet. 

(II)  The  sept  .system  in  Ireland.     (12)  The  Knglish  Pale.    (13)    search 
The  personal  character  of  Henry  II.     (14)  Richard  I.  in  Palestine.    *°P'<=8 
(1.'))  The  romantic  legends  regarding  Richard's  captivity.     (16)  The 
attitude  of  other  English  monarchs  than  Richard  to  the  Crusades. 

(17)  .\ppeal8  to  the  King  in  Council.  (18)  The  murder  of  Becket. 
(19)  How  did  Ik'cket  become  a  .saint  ? 


REFERENCES 

Ste  maps.  pp.  77,  04  ;  Oardiner,  School  Alfna,  map  1 1  ;  Poole. 
UUtoriral  Alius,  map  x.\i.\. ;  Reich,  New  SludenUs'  Atlas,  maps 
6,  9. 

Bright,  Ilistonj  of  Eu'jhtnd,  I.  bl>-12'>;  GanlintT,  Stwleut's  His- 
tory, I.  l;{^10.'>;  lian.somt-.  Advanced  Histort/,  13.j-l(5(i;  fireen. 
Short  History,  }Oi-\\r,.  —  History  of  the  English  Peopl,-.  bk.  ii. 
ch.  iii.  ;   Montague,  Eltmcnta  uj  Constitutional   History,  40-51  ; 


Oeography 


Secondary 
authorities 


140 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


Stubbs,  Tha  EarJij  Plantagenets,  chs.  iii.-vi,,  —  Select  Charters,  21- 
29,  —  Constitutional  History,  I.  ch.xii, ;  Mrs.  J.  R.  Green,  Henry  II.  ; 
Brewer,  Stndenfs  Hume,  ch.  vii. ;  Lingard,  History  of  England,  I. 
ch.  xii.,  II.  ch,  i. ;  Norgate,  England  under  the  Angevin  Kings,  I. 
chs.  ix.-xi.,  II.  chs.  i.-viii.  ;  Ramsay,  The  Angevin  Empire,  chs.  i.- 
xxii.  ;  Wakeman  and  Hassall,  Essays  Introductory  to  English 
Constitutional  History,  no.  iii  ;  Taswell-Langniead,  Constitutional 
History,  73-8i,  121-161  ;  Traill,  Social  England,  I.  267-298  ; 
Pearson,  England  during  the  Early  and  31iddle  Ages,  ch.  xxiii.  ; 
Edwards,  Wales,  chs.  vi.  vii.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  ix.-xii. ;  Bar- 
nard, Conquest  of  Ireland  ;  McCarthy,  Outlines  of  Irish  History, 
ch.  iii. ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Laio,  I.  bk.  i. 
ch.  V. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  12-21  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  22-24,  27  ;  Kendall,  Source- 
Book,  ch.  iv.  ;  Henderson,  Select  Documents,  10,  11  (a  forged 
document)  ;  Archer,  Crusades  of  Bichard  I. ;  Barnard,  Strong- 
bow^s  Conquest  of  Ireland  ;  Hutton,  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury. 
See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  240, — 
Historical  Sources,  152-154. 

Helps,  Henry  II.  ;  Hewlett,  Bichard  Yea  and  Nay  ;  Scott,  Tlie 
Betrothed,  —  The  Talisman, —  Ivanhoe;  Tennyson,  Becket  (a 
drama), —  The  Foresters  (a  drama);  Bates  and  Coman,  English 
History  told  by  English  Poets,  60-8O. 


i 


CHAITKU   X. 
ECONOMIC   AND   SOCIAL    I'KOGKKSS    (1100-1850) 

TiiR  late  Norman  and  early  Plautagenet  periods  began  an 
economic  and  social  change  which  was  destined  to  do  away 
with  some  of  the  most  striking  features  of   feudalism.  . 

Through  slow  crystallization  of  customs,  feudal  service  cline  of 

was  lifted  one  grade  higher.  The  menial  servant  who 
could  not  be  kept  biisy  during  his  lord's  absence  from  the 
manor,  often  was  assigned  small  i)ortions  of  land  to  work  ;  such 
land,  if  held  by  him  and  his  children  in  succession  for  several 
generations,  gradually  became  reserved  by  customary  right; 
and  thus  he  rose  from  the  base  to  the  privileged  class  of 
villeins.  Again,  lords  of  the  manor  would  often  set  free  a 
portion  of  their  serfs,  either  as  penance  for  sacrilege  or  some 
worse  crime,  or  upon  their  deathbeds,  as  a  preparation  for 
departure  from  life. 

\  illeins  might  earn  their  own  enfranchisement,  since  such 
of  tliem  as  had  a  talent  for  handicrafts  were  able  during  their 
free  hours  to  earn  enough  silver  to  commute  their  dues        147.  En- 
in  kind  into  a  money  payment,  an  exchange  which  the  lord       g^^  °of  ^y^{_ 
was  always  glad  to  make.     They  were  then  able  to  devote  leins 

all  their  time  to  their  wage-eaniing  crafts,  and  speedily  became 
free  tenants.  Others,  shrewd  in  purchasing  and  bargaining, 
bought  their  freedom  with  the  proceeds  of  trade.  i^Iany 
strung-willed  villeins  fled  from  their  manor  and  took  refuge  in 
some  distant  town,  where,  by  eust(jmarv  law.  a  residence  of  a 
year  and  a  day  freed  them  from  their  bondage  to  the  soil  of 
the   manor  whence  they   had    fled.     A    still    more   important 

UI 


PL ANTA GENET  ENGLAND 


L.UPOATES,  ENG'R,  n:v. 


i       Longitude  West       2  fi-om  Greenwich    0         East 


143 


KCONoMlC    AND   SOCIAL    rUcxiUK.SS    OlOU-l.loO)        143 

means  of  nsiii;_r  in  tlie  world  lay  tliiough  entrance  into  holy 

onlors;  for  the  ohunh  was  reaily  to  seek  everywhere,  in  the 

villein's  cottage  as  in  the  lord's   manor  honse,  for  intelligent, 

devoteil  servants. 

As  with  individnals,  so  with  comniunities.     Places  which, 

like  Chester  and  Carlisle,  were  located  near  some  old  Roman 

or   Norman   stronghold ;    others   -which,   like  Oxford   or 

148    Rise 
\\  inchester,  were   the   sites  of   important  monasteries :          of  char 

and  others  which,  like  Norwich,  stood  at  the  head  of  ^^^^^  '°^^ 
navigation  on  some  stream,  attracted  to  themselves  the  carpen- 
ters, masons,  glass  and  metal  workers,  for  whom  the  Normans 
now  found  employment.  Villages  developed  rapidly  into 
towns  through  the  growth  of  trade,  and  as  soon  as  they  were 
rich  enough  •  they  sought   charters   of   privileges   from   their 

jfi  Wv  ^1^  "»  ^t  4"  '""rSw""'  tM  jure  ^\malp'^  >  %<mum  ^JuISTj^i  Wwikim  >to».^Wi  jit  CJ 

BE<;ixMVf;  of  a  Chartkk  <»k  Hknkv  III.,  gr.\.\tino   a  Giildhall  to 

Ox  KURD.  1 

lords.  Furthermore,  nearly  all  the  towns  formerly  free,  bnt 
absorbed  into  the  crown  demesne  at  the  time  of  the  conquest, 
now  began  to  purchase  from  the  king  charters  granting  them 
certain  rights  of  self-government.  Among  the  towns  to  which 
c-liarters  were  early  granted  we  find  London,  Winchester, 
r»ri.stol,  Exeter,  Gloucester,  Worcester,  Norwich,  and  York. 
For   many    reasons    the    inhabitants   of    thriving    villages 


144  NORMAN    FEUDALISM 

desired  a  cliarter.  In  the  first  place,  the  financial  system  of 
feudalism  was  both  complex  and  indefinite;  no  two  vassals 
149  Value  stood  on  exactly  the  same  basis,  and  no  vassal  could 
of  charters  foresee  what  demands  might  be  made  on  him.  Such 
a  system  was  intolerable  to  the  shrewd  financiers  who  built  up 
the  earliest  trading  centers.  They  preferred  to  commute  their 
irregular  and  indefinite  payments  into  a  single  definite  tax 
(the  firma  hurgi),  and  to  assess  and  levy  this  by  business- 
like methods  devised  by  themselves,  without  interferences 
from  the  king's  petty  officers.  Furthermore,  in  the  "  guilds," 
or  trade  associations  which  they  formed  to  advance  their 
business  (§  158),  they  had  a  machinery  suitable  for  local  gov- 
ernment, and  capable  of  preserving  much  better  order  than 
was  possible  under  the  king's  officers. 

In  their  charters,  therefore,  the  commercial  and  industrial 
communities  sought  to  secure  at  least  three  special  rights : 
(1)  a  quitrent  tax  instead  of  the  uncertain  feudal  charges ;  (2) 
self-government  under  a  mayor  and  aldermen ;  (3)  regulation 
of  trade.  Many  of  the  towns  were  in  the  demesne  lands  of 
the  crown,  and  purchased  the  coveted  privileges  from  the 
king;  others  lay  in  the  domains  of  some  monastery,  bishop,  or 
lay  baron,  and  bought  charters  from  their  lords.  For  example, 
the  citizens  of  Lincoln  paid  200  marks  in  silver  and  4  marks 
in  gold  to  be  freed  from  the  control  of  the  local  lord,  so  that 
they  might  hold  directly  of  the  king. 

London  was  naturally  the  earliest  town  to  gain  important 

immunities.     At  the   time   of  the   conquest  William  I.  took 

150    G  pains  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  Londoners  by  special 

ernment  of    pledges.       "  William,    king,"    reads    its    first    charter, 

London  ^^  greets  William,  bishop,  and   Gorfrith,  port-reeve,  and 

Documents,    all  the  burghers  within   London,  French   and   English, 

*-  friendly ;  and  I  do  you  to  wit  that  ye  two  be  worthy  of 

all  the  laws  that  ye  were  worthy  of  in  King  Edward's  day, 

and  I  will  that  every  child  be  his  father's  heir  after  his  father's 


ECONOMIC    AND   SOCIAL    1'K<i(;kESS    (110()-l.3o(»)        145 

(lay.  And  I  will  iidt  endiire  that  any  man  offer  any  wrong  to 
you.  God  keej)  you."  The  city  received  a  permanent  civic 
organization  in  1191.  The  mayor  (at  first  an  appointed  officer, 
but  after  iL'lo  elective)  was  associated  with  a  board  of  alder- 
men from  the  different  wards,  representing  the  merchant 
guilds,  miuiy  of  which  still  exist. 

By  the  year  1200  the  city  of  London  had  taken  on  -some- 
thing of  its  permanent  form.     From  the  eastern  end,  where 

stood  the  great  Tower  built  by  William  the  Conqueror, 

.  i",  151    Sketch 

Stretched  a  wall,  i)ierced  at  intervals  by  gates  flanked  by      of  London 

defensive  towers,  inclosing  an  area  of  668  acres,  and  i^^i^oOAD 
returning  to  the  river  just  beyond  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's. 
Within  these  limits  were  massed  the  houses  and  shops  of  the 
tradesmen  and  artisans.  The  names  of  the  streets  —  Cornhill, 
Milk  Street,  Bread  Street,  Chepe-side  (i.e.  market-place),  The 
Poultry  —  still  testify  to  the  business  done  in  different  locali- 
ties. There  was  a  guildhall  for  the  meetings  of  the  town 
council  and  the  craft  guilds,  and  a  mai-ket  house  for  miscel- 
laneous business.     "  The  greater  part  of  the  city  was  built 

of  wood,  and  the    houses  were   covered  with    reed  and        Fitz-Ste- 

phen,  De- 
straw  ...  so  that  whenever  any  house  caught  fire,  the     acriptiono/ 

greater  part  of  the  city  was  burnt,  as  came  to  pass  in         London, 
''  ^  circa  1173 

the  first  year  of  King  Stephen." 

Two  miles  west  of  the  city,  the  borough  of  Westminster  was 
rising  into  importance,  first  because  in  it  sto(jd  the  noble 
abbey  on  which  Edward  the  Confe.ssor  had  e-xjiended  one 
tenth  of  his  yearly  income,  and  also  the  great  palace  of 
William  Rufus;  and,  secondly,  because  the  business  of  the 
king's  court  was  now  centered  there. 

If  we  examine  the  communities  in  England  at  the  end  of 

the  twelfth  century,  we  shall  find  four  different  types:    ,,„  „, 

•' »  152  Classes 

(1)   the  village,  a  meif  center  of  manorial   life;    (2)   the      of  commu- 
borough,  a  village  of   sufficient   imix)rtance    to  pos.sess  niUe& 

walls  or  other  defensive  works,  and  some  measure  of  self-gov- 


146  NORMAN   FEUDALISM 

ernment ;  (3)  the  town,  distinguished  by  its  flourishing  trade 
or  industry,  its  weekly  market,  and  in  most  cases  its  charter  of 
privileges  from  the  lord  of  the  domain ;  (4)  the  city,  a  name 
applied  specifically  only  to  towns  which  contained  the  oflicial 
residence  of  a  bishop,  and  his  cathedral  church. 

The  causes  of  the  rapid  development  of  city  life  are  to  be 
sought  first  of  all  in  the  conditions   created  by  the  Norman 

153.  Causes    conquest. 

of  changes  (±-j  The  security  of  property  brought  about  by  William 
the  Conqueror  and  by  Henry  I.  were  favorable  to  trade  and 
industry.  The  Danes,  after  one  attempt  to  replace  the  Eth- 
eling  on  the  throne  in  1069,  let  England  alone.  Under 
Henry  I.,  private  warfare  ceased  to  interfere  with  trade;  for 
in  1102  the  Lion  of  Justice  so  severely  fined  Ivo  of  Grant- 
mesnil,  the  first  of  his  vassals  to  imitate  the  French  peers  in 
their  readiness  to  fight,  as  to  prevent  others  from  repeating 
the  offense.  Henry  also  extended  the  protection  of  the  king's 
peace  over  all  the  roads  in  the  kingdom,  to  the  great  advan- 
tage of  commerce, 

(2)  The   connection   with   Normandy    helped    England   to 
develop.     The  Conqueror  and  his  Norman  followers*  held  fre- 
quent communication  between  their  Norman  and  their 

154    For-         ^  . 

eign  inter-     English   possessions.     In  their  tram  came   to   England 

course  numerous  shrewd  Norman  merchants,  who  were  quick  to 

see  the  advantage  of  building  up  business  in  a  country  as  yet 
undeveloped ;  and  hard  upon  the  heels  of  the  merchants  fol- 
lowed bands  of  artificers  and  craftsmen,  Avho  settled,  some  in 
the  east  in  Norfolk,  and  some  in  the  west  in  Wales.  These 
merchants  set  examples  of  vigor  and  of  enterprise  which  the 
English  were  not  slow  to  imitate,  and  trade  was  rapidly  built 
up  with  Ireland,  with  Brittany,  and  with  Denmark. 

(3)  Above  all,  it  was  during  this  period  that  England 
began  the  wool  trade  with  Flanders,  which  formed  the  most 
important  feature  of  English   commerce  for  three  centuries. 


KCoNoMlc    AM)    SOCIAL    TKOGRESS    (1100-13'>0)        147 


The  Fk'inish  traders  traversed  tlie  country,  visited  the 
various  markets,  fairs,  and  even  individual  manors,  to  col- 
lect the  raw  wool  pro- 
duced in  England,  and 
transported  it  in  bales 
to  Dover ;  there  it  was 
stored  up  in  warehouses 
until  the  arrival  of 
vessels  which  plied 
between  England  and 
Flanders.  In  the  latter 
country    it   was   woven  Ship  of  Henry  Ill.s  Timk. 

into  cloth,  and  then  was     ^^nh  fighting-deck  in  slfrn.     f^n.in  H  MS.  Le 

,  ,    ,,  ,        ,  Livre  des  Hisloires,  l'2ii\)  A.D. 

marketed  throughout 

southern  Europe.  Hitherto  ships  from  the  Mediterranean  had 
largely  monopolized  the  carrying  trade,  but  now  England  be- 
gan to  build  merchant  ships  in  large  numbers.  These  were 
clumsy  affairs  constructed  of  oak,  with  high  sides  and  rounded 
ends,  and  equipped  rather  for  ability  to  resist  both  stress  of 
weather  and  piratical  attacks,  than  for  speed  or  freight  ca- 
pacity. 

(4)   The  Normans  did  more  than  to  teach  the  English  com- 
merce and  manufacture ;  they  also  taught  them  to  want  many 

things  whidi  tliey  had  never  desired  before.     For  exam-      ,,^    „ 

•^  •'  155.    Nor- 

ple,  under  William  II.  the  upper  classes  in  England  be-  man  fash- 
came  for  the  first  time  extremely  fastidious  alx)ut  their 
dress.  Long,  flowing  hair,  loose,  sweeping  garnu'nts,  long  and 
pointed  shoes,  were  the  fashion  at  William's  court;  these 
fa.shious  were  changed  under  his  successor,  Henry  I.,  and  the 
close  tunic  with  a  flowing  loo.se  outer  cloak  came  into  use. 
As  with  dress,  so  with  articles  of  food,  witli  aristocratic  pas- 
times like  hunting  and  hawking,  with  a'sthetic  delights.  In 
all  these  the  Normans  set  an  example  for  the  English,  whose 
lives  had  been  comparatively  barren  antl  unWautiful. 


148 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


man  and 
Gothic 
architec- 
ture 


(5)  It  was  the  Normans,  too,  who  taught  the  English  to 
care  for  noble  and  dignified  architecture,  although  as  yet  they 

156  Nor-  P^^t  ^P  churches,  monasteries,  and  castles,  rather  than 
fine  residences  and  civic  buildings.  One  hundred  and 
ninety-five  religious  houses  were  built  during  the  reigns 
of  William  I.  and  his  sons.      During  the  early  part  of 

the  twelfth  century, 
architects  in  England 
adhered  to  the  massive 
round  pier  and  arch, 
plain  or  but  slightly 
ornamented,  character- 
istic of  the  Normans  in 
France ;  but  about  1174 
appeared  the  Gothic 
pointed  arch,  with  its 
lighter  clustered  sup- 
porting columns  and 
its  wealth  of  free  orna- 
mentation. The  noble 
cathedral  at  Canter- 
bury, which  was  more 
than  a  century  in  build- 
ing, has  both  styles. 
The  crypt,  certain 
piers,  and  parts  of  the 
wall  are  Norman  ;  while  the  clustered  shafts,  the  trefoils  in 
the  arches,  and  the  lancet-shaped  windows  date  from  the  era 
when  Gothic  art  was  introduced  by  returning  crusaders. 

(6)  Another  influence  favorable   to  city  life  was  the  Cru- 
sades, which  spread  a  desire  for  luxuries  among  the  wealthier 

,,-    ^.,        classes   of  England,  by  making  them    acquainted   with 
157.  Effect  o  J      J  o  1         ^ 

of  the  Cru-  Eastern  products,  such  as  muslin  and  fine  silks,  and 
with  the  luxury  of  Oriental  civilization.     The  Crusades 


lMtiD.tfi«rw.»»jfiafc,i^.:^, 


Stairway  with  Norman  Piers  and  Ah(  hes. 
In  the  close  of  Canterbury  Cathedral. 


sades 


ECONOMIC    AND   SOCIAL    THOGRESS    (1100-1350)        149 


led  English  inerohants  to  venture  into  the  Mediterranean,  to 
exchange  their  wares  for  foreign  products.  These  products 
were  distributed  to  buyers  in  England  through  great  fairs 
held  at  stated  intervals  in  towns  situated  at  the  intersection 
of  main  roads.  The 
greatest  fair  in  Eng- 
land was  held  yearly 
at  Stourbridge  (map, 
p.  l.">0),  from  Sep- 
tember 18  to  October 
9,  when  hundreds  of 
booths  or  stalls  were 
erected  in  rows  form- 
ing long  streets,  and 
leased  to  merchants 
from  Hamburg,  Bor- 
deaux, Florence,  Bru- 
ges, and  other  Euro- 
pean marts.  Here 
merchants  and  bailiffs 
procured  their  annual 
supply  of  salt,  pepper, 
spices,  wine,  arras,etc., 
and  disposed  of  their 
wool,  hides,  grain,  and 
hay. 

(7)  Still  another  up- 
lifting force  was  the 


ChoUI  ok  (   an  i  l.t:i;l  KV    L  Allll.lilwVl.  O-Ui'KlMi 

East),  bitlt  1174-1180. 
lllustratin>;j  Xoniiaii  ami  early  fJothic  vaulting. 


organization  of  guilds  and  associations  of  merchants,  which  were 

started  upon  the  Continent  and  adopted  by  the  English  as  local 

commeree  increased.     Thus  commerce  made  much  more    ,^„   „    ^ 

158.  Trade 

rapid  progress  than  agriculture.  Every  manor  carried  on  guilds  and 
its  farm  work  in  isolation,  and  most  bailiffs  plowed,  sowed,  "^ft  guilds 
and  reaped  precisely  as  their  predecessors  had  done;  but  iu  the 


150 


NORMAN   FEUDALISM 


Principal  Fairs  in  the  Thirteenth  Century. 


guilds  all  traders  worked  to  a  common  end,  and  were  thus 
able  to  control  not  only  methods  and  hours  of  worl<:,  but  also 
to  a  large  extent  quantity,  quality,  and  even  price  of  product. 
They  maintained  trading  posts  in  foreign  cities,  and  got  from 
the  king  a  monopoly  of  the  right  to  impoi-t  or  to  sell  certain 
articles,  and  exemption  from  paying  tolls  and  duties  on  others. 
The  merchants'  guild  was  the  pioneer  organization  of  its 
kind,  but  many  others  were  speedily  developed  on  the  same 
model.  Thus  we  find  the  small  tradesmen  (bakers,  grocers, 
butchers,  clothiers)  and  the  handicraftsmen  (weavers,  dyers, 
fullers,  leather  workers)  forming  guilds,  and  securing  special 
privileges  in  return  for  the  payment  of  sums  of  money.  Since 
the  privileges  obtained  by  these  guilds  were  costly,  they  were 
too  precious  to  be  wasted.  The  guild,  therefore,' adopted  strict 
rules  for  the  training  of    skilled    artisans,  took    measures   to 


ECONOMIC    AM)   SOCIAL    riioGKESS    (llOO-l.-JoO)        lol 

[•revent  the  marketing  of  cheap  and  ill-made  wares,  and  exer- 
I'ised  a  wholesome  supervision  over  the  morals  of  the  work- 
men employed.  In  their  provision  for  the  payment  of  sick 
and  death  benefits  to  their  members  they  anticipated  the  work- 
ingmen's  mutual  associations  of  our  day. 

(8)  One  important  cause  of  economic  progress  was  the  intro- 
ductiou  of  a  Jewish  colony  into  England  by  William  the  Con- 

(jueror,  from  his  Norman  capital  of  Rouen.    In  both  coun- 

1      T  11-1  1^^    ^■ 

tries  the  Jews  were  merely  dejjendents  of  the  sovereign  ;   portationof 

for  the  Christians  of  the  eleventh  century  were  wholly  capitalists 
unchristian  in  their  attitude  toward  them.  Thus  the  Jews 
had  in  Englaiul  no  right  to  protection  under  the  laws  of  the 
land,  or  redress  for  wrongs  in  its  courts.  In  1189,  during  the 
reign  of  Kichard  I.,  they  were  massacred  by  thousands  during 
an  outbreak  of  race  hatred.  Their  only  safeguard  from  murder 
and  outrage  lay  in  the  fact  that  they  were  valuable  to  the  kings, 
who  were  always  famous  borrowers.  The  poorer  Jews  also 
found  scope  for  their  talents  as  stewards  on  manors,  or  as  finan- 
cial agents  of  the  king  in  the  management  of  the  demesne  lands. 

The  Jew  had  a  natural  monopoly  of  the  business  of  lending 
money,  for  the  Christians  were  afraid  of  incurring  the  guilt 
of  usury;  and  since  commerce  and  manufactures  depend  in  a 
large  degree  upon  borrowed  cajutal,  the  Jews  were  almost  in- 
dispensable to  the  new  economic  prosperity  of  England.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  much  of  the  capital  with  which  the  Norman 
mnnarchs  and  churchmen  built  those  noble  and  costly  cathe- 
drals and  churches  that  lent  a  glory  to  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  was  Iwrrowed  from  the  despised  enemies  of 
the  Christian  faitli. 

C'ertain    conditions    less    favorable    to    English    i)rosperity 
should   also   be   n<tt«'d.      >retluKls   of   farming  were    still    160    Condi- 
crude;  tlie  nse  of  si>e(;ial  soils  and  fertilizers  fur  particn-     tions  unfa- 
'  '  vorable  to 

lar  crops  was  not  understoo<l,  the  reason  for  rotation  df        progreBs 

croj»s  had   not   been   discovered,  ami  farm    imjilements   were 


152  NORMAN    FEUDALISM 

clumsy.  Moreover,  the  laborers  were  vmintelligent,  and  the 
manorial  system  failed  to  stimulate  individual  enterprise. 
Hence  failures  of  crops  in  unfavorable  seasons  often  brought 
hardship  and  then  starvation.  After  severe  rains,  the  cattle 
(poorly  housed  and  cared  for)  suffered  from  murrain  and  pes- 
tilence, which  often  spread  to  the  agricultural  laborers.  The 
towns,  too,  suffered  severely  from  the  civil  strife,  which 
checked  industry,  and  from  the  foreign  wars  of  the  monarchs, 
which  led  to  excessive  taxation  and  crippled  the  merchant  and 
the  manufacturer. 

Early  in  the  thirteenth  century  a  reaction  set  in  throughout 
Europe  against  the  greed  and  the  arrogance  of  the  monastic 
161.  Monks  corporations,  which  had  become  the  possessors  of  vast 
and  friars  wealth,  with  all  its  temptation  toward  worldliness. 
The  abbots  and  priors  dressed  extravagantly,  lived  luxuri- 
ously, and  devoted  themselves  to  political  and  social  affairs ; 
the  lower  monks  lived  lives  of  ease,  secluded  in  their  cloisters, 
and  caring  only  for  the  salvation  of  their  own  souls ;  or  they 
gave  themselves  up  to  vices  inseparable  from  indolence.  Liv- 
ing, for  the  most  part,  in  fertile  and  remote  valleys  in  the  rural 
districts,  they  were  blind  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  ^he  towns- 
people, and  knew  little  of  the  squalid  homes  or  of  the  sordid 
employments  which  tended  to  degrade  the  thronging  artisans. 
Nor  did  the  secular  clergy  supply  the  needed  uplift ;  too  often 
the  parish  priests  in  the  towns  were  grossly  ignorant,  for  most 
of  the  richer  livings  were  located  in  the  country. 

New  orders  of  monks,  called  mendicant  friars,  were  formed 
to  tight  these  conditions.  Abjuring  the  holdiug  of  property, 
the  friars  devoted  themselves  to  spreading  religion  within  the 
towns,  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  to  a  life  of  self-sacrifice  in  the 
cause  of  humanity.  The  Austin  or  Begging  Friars,  the  Fran- 
ciscans or  Gray  Friars,  the  Dominicans  or  Black  Friars,  and 
the  Carmelites  or  White  Friars  all  appeared  in  England  before 
1350.  '  At  first  opposed  to  education,  and  given  up  to  a  life 


ECONOMIC  AND   SOCIAL   PROGRESS   (1100-1350)        lo3 


lliivs  I'LAYi.Nii  Ball. 

From  MS.  decretals,  formerly  belonging  to  St. 
Bartholomew's  Priorv,  Smithfield. 


of  poverty  ami  practical  benevolence,  they  were  driven  by  their 
labors  a.s  physicians  and  i»rt'uchers  to  take  a  loading  part  in 
the  new  educational  movement  which  soon  developed. 

At  this  time,  education  was  for  the  select  few  only.     Two 
types  of  schools  existed  :  the  '"song  schools,"  where  boys  could 
learn  by  rote  enough  Latin  to  equip  them  for  choir  sing- 
ing; and  the  ''grammar  schools,"  in  which  they  studied        mentary 

Latin  grammar      e^^^^^^io^ 
in    preparation    for 
the  two   universities, 
wliere  Latin  was  much 
used  in  text-books, lec- 
tures,  and    conversa- 
tion.    On  feast  days, 
says     William     Fitz- 
Stephen,  boysof     r> 
different  schools     of  London, 
strove  against  one  another  in  (Latin)  verses,  and  con-       o-^caiLS 
tended  about  the  principles  of  grammar  and  rules  of  the  past 
and  future  tenses.     Two  of  these  schools,  Carlisle   (founded 
under  William  II.)  and  Salisbury  (1319j  later  became  notable 
public  schools. 

Of  the  universities,  that  of  Oxford  was  the  more  ancient. 
The  first  mention  of  the  town  as  a  place  of  resort  for  students 
dates  from  the  year  1117,  when  a  certain  "doctor,"  or   163.  Oxford 

licensed  teacher,  is  said  to  have  '-had  under  him  sixty  or    .  ^ j^  ^^™" 

-'  bridge  um- 

i  hundred  clerks  more  or  less."  Students  were  in  attend-  versities 
anoe  there  all  through  the  twelfth  century,  and  many  men 
came  after  the  settlement  of  a  body  of  Dominican  friars  at 
Oxford  in  1221.  In  1209  a  quarrel  between  the  townspeople 
and  the  students  led  to  a  great  migration  from  Oxford,  and 
many  of  the  deserters  settled  at  rambridge.  For  a  long  time 
the  students  in  both  towns  lodged  wherever  they  could  tind 
accommodations,   and    were    under    little    or    no    discipline. 


154  NORMAN   FEUDALISM  . 

"Instead  of  long  fronts  of  venerable  colleges,  of  stately  walks 
beneath  inuneniorial  elms,  history  plunges  us  into  the  mean 

Green,  and  filthy  lanes  of  a  mediaeval  town.    Thousands  of  boys, 

01 1    IS-      i^^x (Celled  in  bare  lodging  houses,  clustering  around  teach- 

ch.III.^iv.  ers  as  poor  as  themselves  in  church  porch  and  house 
porch  —  drinking,  quarreling,  dicing,  begging  at  the  corners  of 
the  streets  —  take  the  place  of  the  brightly  colored  train  of  Doc- 
tors and  Heads  —  Mayor  and  Chancellor  struggle  in  vain  to 
enforce  order  or  peace  on  this  seething  mass  of  turbulent  life." 


The  influence  of  the  Normans  in  England  was  seen  in  the 
growth  of  city  life,  with  its  diversity  of  industries  and  refine- 
164    Sum-     ment  of  taste.     Architecture,  literature,   fine   arts,  and 
mary  handicrafts  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  merchant,  and 

with  the  wider  opportunities  for  individual  usefulness  and 
the  general  increase  in  intelligence,  serfdom  gradually  waned. 
Political,  mercantile,  and  industrial  corporations  promoted  the 
welfare  of  all  classes,  made  possible  the  conduct  of  enterprises 
on  a  large  scale,  and  thus,  by  creating  a  demand  for  capital, 
promoted  the  very  important  economic  change  by  which  the 
commodity-barter  system  gave  way  to  the  monetary  system  of 
modern  times.  With  the  increase  in  wealth,  the  monks  fell 
away  from  their  high  ideals,  and  the  mendicant  friars  took  up 
their  missionary  work,  carrying  religion  everywhere  into  the 
new-grown  towns.  The  beginnings  of  education  were  seen  in 
the  founding  of  schools  and  colleges,  but  the  masses  —  espe- 
cially in  the  country  districts  —  were  still  grossly  ignorant. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  Compare  a  modern  trade  union   with   a  mediaeval   guild. 

topics  ^2)   wiiy  did  towns  prefer  the  control  of  the  king  to  that  of  a  local 

lord  ?  (3)  From  what  authority  does  a  city  in  the  United  States 
get  its  charter?  (4)  Why  could  the  English  raise  wool  more 
cheaply  than  the  Flemings  ?  (5)  Make  a  list  of  the  novel  articles 
of  commerce  which  appeared  in  England  with  the  advent  of  the 


ECONOMIC    AND    SnClAL    I'ROGRESS  (IKKl-lIJoO)         loo 

Nt>riii;iiis.  and  ilisiMiss  llu-ir  signiHcanci'.  (('»)  What  is  iiinney,  aiitl 
why  tlid  it  Ihcoiir'  more  abuiuiant  in  Kn^land  at  this  time  '.'  (7)  As 
it  bt-canu'  innri'  abundant,  did  it  increase  or  decline  in  value  ?  Diil 
prices,  in  consequence,  rise  or  fall '.'  (H)  Enumerate  the  various 
advantages,  political  and  econouiic,  which  England  derived  from 
its  conquest  by  William  I. 

(9)  An  imaginary  account  of  a  day  at  the  Stourbridge  Fair.  Search 
(10)  Traces  of  the  ancient  government  of  London  in  its  present  '^'•P'^^ 
government.  (11)  The  typical  ground  plan  of  a  cathedral,  and  the 
reasons  for  its  assuming  that  form.  (12)  The  mechanical  reasons 
for  the  adoption  of  the  pointed  arch  ;  of  the  buttress ;  of  the  pin- 
nacle ;  of  Gothic  tracery.  (13)  An  account  of  the  Norman 
method  of  hunting  with  falcons  and  hawks.  (14)  The  medieval 
theory  about  usury,  and  its  expression  in  Shakespeare's  Merchant 
of  Venice.  (15)  Boys'  schools.  (10)  Life  at  the  English  univer- 
sities. (17)  The  banks  of  the  period.  (18)  •'  Liveried  Companies" 
of  London  at  the  present  day.     (19)  Life  in  an  abbey. 


Geogrraphy 

Secondary- 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps.  pp.  77.  142.     Reich,  Xnr  Students"  Atlas,  map  7. 

Bright.  History  <>f  En<jhnul,  I.  64,  72-7t>,  83.  86-88,  113-110; 
Gardiner,  Slwlfiit'n  History,  157-158,  10.>-171  ;  Ran.some,  Ad- 
vanced History,  100,  ll!t-122,  164;  Green,  Short  History,  '.•2-'.)5, 
117-121;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional  History,  3r>-;i!> ; 
Feilden,  Constitutional  History,  chs.  vii.  viii. ;  Stubbs,  Constitu- 
tional History.  L  ch.  xiii. ;  Taswell-Langraead.  Constitutional 
History,  ch.  iii. ;  Gibbins,  Industrial  History,  22-39 ;  Cheyney, 
Introduction  to  Industrial  and  Social  History,  ch.  iii.  ;  Cunning- 
ham, Groicfh  of  Enyltsh  Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  182-228 ; 
Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  Emjland,  bk.  iii.  ch.  v.  ;  Ram.say, 
Anyecin  Empin-.  ch.  xxxi.  ;  Xorgate,  Enyland  under  thf  Amjivin 
Kinijs,  11.  ch.  X.;  Jenks,  Edward  Plantayenet,  chs.  i.-iii. ;  Traill, 
Social  England.  1.319-388,  403-4(18,  4.')0-489 ;  Wright.  History  of 
Dotnestir  Manmrs,  chs.  v.  vi. ;  Jessop.  The  Coming  of  the  Friars. 
ch.  i.  ;  Gas(|uet,  English  Monastic  Life  ;  Uman.  Art  of  War  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  ch.  iv.  ;  Bateson,  Mfdiceval  England,  pts.  i.  ii. ; 
(iross.  The  Gild  Merchant,  chs.  i.-vii.  ;  Pollock  and  Maitland, 
History  of  English   f.aic,   I.   bk.  ii.  ch.  iii.  §§  i.   v.-viii. 

Adam.s  and  Stephens,  Stlert  Documents,  nos.  7-11,  l:i-21  ;  Colby,    Sources 
Selections  from  the  Soiircfs,  nos.  25,  2«i,  28  ;   Kendall,  Sonrci-Book. 
no.  23;  Cheyney.   English  Constitutional  Documents  (University 
of  Pennsylvania  Reprints.    I.   no.  0).  —  English   Towns  and  Gilds 
(I'niversity  of  IVnu-sylvania   Reprint.-*.   II.   no.    1). 
wai.kkk's   kx..  Hist.  —  lu 


CHAPTER  XT. 


DEFENSE   OF   LIBERTY   BY  THE   BARONS    (1199-1272) 

The  nearest  heir  of  Richard  I.  was  Arthur,  a  twelve-year-old 
son    of   his   brother   Geoffrey ;    but    Richard    quarreled    with 
165    Acces-   Arthur's   mother  over  the  possession  of   Brittany  after 
sionofKing   Geoffrey's  death,  and  named  his  younger  brother,  John, 
John  (1199)  ,.      -^  mi  .    ii  •  i 

as  his  successor.  The  barons  accepted  his  recommenda- 
tion, much  to  their  later  regret ;  for  during  the  seventeen 
years  of  John's  reign,  from  1199  to  1216,  his  faults  of  char- 
acter brought  disaster 
on  himself  and  on  the 
kingdom.  Eager  to  en- 
rich himself  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  subjects, 
acting  with  cruelty  and 
violence  when  violence 
could  do  least  service, 
selfish,  untrustworthy, 
short-sighted,  by  these 
very  faults  King  John 
provoked  a  very  great 
advance  in  English  con- 
stitutional liberty. 


King  John,  hunting. 

From  a  MS.  forest  charter,  dating 
from  Edward  I. 


Like  his  father,  he  began  his  reign  with   a   struggle   over 

territory ;  for  King  Philip  Augustus  of  France  recognized 

tests  over      Arthur's  claims  to  most  of  the  French  fiefs  of  Richard, 

domains         ^"*^  ^®  ^^^°  summoned  John  as  a  vassal  to  appear  at  the 

(1199-1204)  French  court  and  defend  himself  against  charges  of  mis- 

166 


DEFENSE    DF    LIBKIMV    15V    TIIK    IJAliONS    (lll>9-1272)       loT 


government  in  his   province   of   Poitou.     On   John's    refusal 
his  French  fiefs  were  declared  forfeited.     In  the  war  wjiich 
followed,    Arthur   was    captured    by    John,    and    soon    after 
died.     The  charge  that  he  was  murdered  liv  John's  orders  was 
of  great  advantage  to   Philip,  who  now  invaded  Normandy, 
supported  by  almost  all  John's   French  subjects.     John  was 
driven  from  France,  and 
all  Nornuinily,  Maine,  An- 
jou,  and  Touraine  passed 
permanently  into  the 
hands   of    Philip   (1204), 
in  spite  of  John's   later 
efforts  to  reconquer  them. 
Of    all    the   vast    French 
domains  of  Henry  II.  the 
only  portion  left  to  John 
was  Afpiitaine  (including 
Gascony,     Guienne,     and 
part    of    Poitou).      Thus 
after  being  connected  witli 
England  for  nearly  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  years,  Nor- 
mandy reverted  to  French         Joh.n's  FoRFKrrKD  Fkk.\(  h  Fikks. 
control.     Of  William's  possessions,  the  Channel  Islands  alone 
remained  (as  they  still  do)  subject  to  the  English  crown. 

.Meanwhile  John  quarreled  with  the  church  still  more 
bitterly  tlian  had  his  father.  When  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury died   in  120"),  John  forced  the  chapter  to  elect    167    Stnig- 

one  of  his  favorites,  the  Pishoi*  of  Norwich.     The  monks   ^^®  ^'^^  ^^® 

'  church 

of    the    cathedral   chapter   protested   that   they   had   the   <1205-1213) 

sole  right  to  choo.se  the  archbishop;  John  admitted  their 
right  to  elect,  provided  they  chose  whomever  he  shoidd  nom- 
inate. Both  parties  appealed  to  Pope  Innocent  III.,  and 
"proctors"  (deputies)    were    sent   to    Rome   to    hiy    the   case 


»CAIE  or  uiies      A 


158  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

clearly  before  him.  Innocent  saw  in  this  event  an  oppor- 
tunity to  assert  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope  over  monarchs,  a 
doctrine  of  which  he  was  a  most  ardent  champion.  '*Xo 
king,"  said  he,  **can  rule  rightly  unless  .he  devoutly  serve 
Christ's  Vicar."  He  therefore  ordered  the  proctors  at  Rome 
to  elect  a  candidate  of  his  own,  an  Englishman  named  Stephen 
Langton.  "Personally  a  better  choice  could  not  have  been 
Green's  made,  for  Stephen  was  a  man  who  by  sheer  weight  of 

Short  H/s-  learning  and  holiness  of  life  had  risen  to  the  dignity  of 
///.  §  ii.  Cardinal,  and  whose  after  career  placed  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  English  patriots.  But  in  itself  the  step  was  a  violent 
usurpation  of  the  rights  both  of  the  Church  and  of  the  Crown." 
John  refused  to  accept  the  decision,  and  carried  on  a 
struggle  against  the  clergy  with  so  great  violence  as  almost  to 
renew  the  terrors  of  Stephen's  reign.  He  seized  the  property 
of  the  see  of  Canterbury  for  his  own  use,  and  refused  the 
protection  of  the  law  to  the  bishops  and  clergymen,  avIio  were 
in  many  places  driven  from  their  lands  and  subjected  to  rob- 
bery and  outrage.  A  Welshman  was  brought  before  John, 
charged  with  murdering  a  priest.  "  Let  him  go,"  said  John, 
"  he  has  killed  my  enemy." 

The  Pope  now  laid  the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  by  which 
it  was   made   unlawful   to  perform  any  church  service  or  to 
168.  Vic-       celebrate  publicly  the   sacraments   of  marriage   and  of 
chrn-ch    ^     burial.     "The  bodies  of   the  dead  were   carried   out  of 
(1213)  cities  and  towns,  and  buried  in  roads  and  ditches  without 

Roger  of  prayers  or  the  attendance  of  priests."  John  retaliated 
Wendover,  y^^  confiscating  all  the  property  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
Majora  Pope,  in  turn,  excommunicated  John.     As  the  king  re- 

fused to  yield,  the  Pope,  after  waiting  three  years,  issued  a 
"  bull "  (papal  decree)  deposing  him,  absolving  England  from 
the  duty  of  obedience  to  him,  and  authorizing  his  enemy 
Philip  Augustus  of  France  to  expel  him  from  his  kingdom. 
Disaffection   among   his   own    subjects    left   John    without 


DEKKNSK    uF    LIHKIMY    BY     1111-:    IJAHoNS    (1109-1272;      l')9 

support  against  liis  enemies;  and  in  121."!  he  waii  obliiijed  to 
sultniit  to  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  to  Inimiliate  himself  he- 
fore  the  papal  legate,  Pandulf,  and  to  resit;ii  his  crown  into 
the  legate's  hands  and  receive  it  again  as  a  vassal  of  the  I'oite. 
Furthermore  he  was  required  to  accept  Langton  as  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  to  restore  the  church  lands  to  the  bishops  and 
monks,  and  to  make  good  the  losses  sustained  during  the 
recent  trouble. 

John's  submission  to  the  Pope  was  partly  due  to  his  wish  to 
invade  France  and  recover  his  forfeited  domains;  but  his 
barons  refused  to  accompany  him  beyond  seas.     Never-  169.  Strug- 

theless,  with  the  assistance   of  the   German   Emperor,   glewi'^bthe 

'  baronage 

of  loyal  vassals  in  France,  and  of  English  mercenaries,  he  (1213-1215> 

attacked  Philip ;  but  his  cause  was  hopelessly  lost  when  tlie 

Emperor's  allied  force  of  Germans  and  English  was  defeated 

in  the  disastrous  battle  of  Bouvines  (1214). 

The  l)arons  took  advantage  of  John's  difficulties  to  urge 
refonys  in  the  government,  for  he  had  persistently  violated  the 
rights  guaranteed  in  the  charter  of  Henry  I.  At  St.  Albans, 
and  at  St.  Paul's  in  London,  they  pressed  their  demands  for 
better  government,  and  in  a  final  conference  at  Pury  St.  Ed- 
munds they  swore  that  "if  the  king  delayed  any  longer  Stuhbs, 
to  restore  the  laws  and  liberties,  thev  would  withdraw  Constuu- 
their  allegiance,  and  would  make  war  upon  him  until  he  toiy,  i.r,67 
should  confirm  the  concession  by  a  sealed  charter.''  John 
attempted  resistance,  tried  to  separate  the  clergy  from  the 
barons  by  an  offer  to  grant  them  frecthim  in  the  election  of 
bishops  and  arclibishops,  cajoled  individual  barons  in  order  to 
create  disunion  among  liis  enemies,  appealed  to  the  Pope  for 
assistance,  and  finally  took  the  cross  of  a  crusader  to  i»rotect 
his  person  from  violence,  at  the  same  time  that  he  was  pre- 
paring for  war. 

The  rebels  met  at  Stamford  and  marched  southward  to 
London.     For  a  while  John  dreamed  of  resistance,  b\it  ilay  by 


100 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


day  his  adherents  fell  off,  until  he  could  command  the  support 
of  only  seven  knights.  Cowed  for  the  time,  he  met  the  barons 
at  llunnymede  on  the  Thames  near  Windsor,  and  after  a  single 
day's  discussion  agreed  to  the  terms  of  the  Magna  Charta,  or 
Great  Charter,  practically  as  dictated  by  the  barons,  June  15, 
1215. 

This  charter  as  originally  agreed  upon  contained  forty-nine 

articles  (afterward  increased  to  sixty-three),  setting  forth  the 

170.  Magna  rights  and  privileges  of  each  class  of  people  and  each 

Charta  department   of   the   government.     Among  other  things, 

1215)  (1)  it  guaranteed  freedom  of  elections  within  the  church ; 

(2)  it  insured  the  regular  judicial  system  created  by  Henry, 


^£1Ij: 


i 


Vefv^rr. 


Portion  of  Magna  Charta. 


with  special  provisions  regarding  the  circuit  courts ;  (3)  it 
limited  judicial  tines  to  a  reasonable  amount ;  (4)  it  provided 
securities  for  personal  freedom  to  earl,  baron,  freeman,  and 
villein,  especially  in  the  famous  thirty-ninth  article,  which 
declared   that   "no   freeman    shall    be   taken,    or   imprisoned 


DF.rKNSK   Ob'    LIHKUTV    15V     1111-;    HAKONS    (11'.»;»-1l'7i')       Uil 

or  outlawed,  or  banished,  .  .  .  but  by  the  lawful  judgment 
of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land";  (oj  it  reviewed 
the  whole  question  of  the  financial  relations  between  lord  and 
vassal,  abolishing  all  exorbitant  and  irregular  demands  in  the 
case  of  inheritances,  wardship,  and  the  like,  and  laying  down 
the  ])rinciple  that  the  consent  of  the  Great  Council  should 
be  necessary  to  the  levying  of  scutage  or  of  aids  other  than  the 
three  kinds  which  were  fixed  and  undisputed  —  namely,  for 
ransom  of  the  sovereign,  for  the  knighthood  of  his  son.  and 
for  the  marriage  of  his  daughter;  (6)  it  guaranteed  the  intelli- 
gent administration  of  justice  by  sheriffs  or  other  officers 
"who  knew  the  law  of  the  realm,"  and  wisely  proliibited  the 
torture  of  criminals;  and  (7)  it  provided  for  uniform  weights 
and  measures,  and  for  the  protection  of  merchants  at  home 
and  abroad. 

The  inii)<»rtance  of  Magna  Charta  can  not  be  exaggerated, 
but  its  character  should  not  be  mistaken.     It  did  not  create 

new   conditions   or  formulate    novel  constitutional  nrin- 
•   I         T^  ■       ,  ,  iTl.signifi- 

ciples.     It   was   simply    a   comi)rehensive,  definite,  and         cance  of 

systematic  statement  of  principles  of  government  which  <^^i8 charter 
had  been  already  recognized  in  practice;  it  was  the  first  de- 
tailed yet  brief  enumeration  of  the  relations  between  the 
monarch  and  his  subjects,  and  it  was  the  first  compact  in 
English  history  in  which  these  two  jiarties  neg(»tiated  as  equals. 
Previous  charters  had  been  granted  by  the  monarch  to  the 
l»eoi)]e.  and  (•(•ntained  no  guarantee  beyond  the  king's  word  ; 
this  one  authorized  a  committee  of  twenty-five  ])eers  to  enforce 
its  provisions,  by  forcibly  resisting  the  monarch  if  necessary, 
.seizing  his  castles,  and  going  to  any  extreme  short  of  violence 
to  his  person  or  to  his  family.  The  weakn«'ss  of  this  provisi(jn 
was  that  it  provided,  not  a  truly  legal  remetly  like  impeachment, 
but  simply  civil  war  sanctioned  in  advance. 

The  charter  was   especially  significant  in  that   its   benefits 
were  not  confined  to  a  single  class.     In  the  assemblies  sun)- 


162  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

moned  during  the  struggle,  both  king  and  barons  sought  the 
support  of  tlie  burgesses  (citizeMS  of  tlie  boroughs)  and  the 
influential  inhabitants  of  important  towns  ;  London  was  repre- 
sented in  the  rebellious  army  and  its  Lord  Mayor  was  one  of  the 
twenty-five  guardians  of  the  charter,  and  the  document  applied 
to  villeins  and  to  simple  freemen,  as  well  as  to  noblemen. 

After  the  acceptance  of  the  charter,  John's  reign  lasted  but 

sixteen  months,  a  period  of  confusion  and  distress  for  England. 

172.  Close     John  chafed  and  struggled  against  the  chains  with  which 

of  John's        Yie  had  been  shackled.     The  Pope,  troubled  by  the  power 
^  reign  J^    '  j  i 

'(1215-1216)  of  the  barons, — though  his  own  nominee,  Langton,  was  a 
leader  among  them,  —  attempted  by  a  bull  to  make  the  charter 
null  and  void,  suspended  Langton  from  office,  and  launched  an 
anathema  against  the  whole  body  of  rebellious  barons.  The 
barons,  elated  by  their  success  against  John,  divided  the  king- 
dom among  their  chiefs  —  partly  to  secure  the  enforcement  of 
the  charter,  partly  to  humiliate  the  king,  partly  to  gain  per- 
sonal advantages  for  themselves.  Discord  was  certain ;  one 
party  secured  the  friendship  of  Louis,  heir  to  the  throne  of 
France,  and  even  recognized  him  as  king  of  England.  John  by 
great  exertions  recovered  control  of  the  north  and  ^est,  but 
when  Louis  appeared  in  London,  many  nobles  and  bishoj^s  has- 
tened to  swear  homage  and  fealty  to  him.  Successes  in  the 
southeast  strengthened  their  hopes,  and  John,  reckless  and 
despairing,  was  vainly  struggling  to  keep  his  ascendency  in 
the  midland  counties,  when  he  died  suddenly  at  Newark, 
October  19,  1216.  The  pro-English  barons  named  his  nine- 
year-old  son  Henry  as  king,  and  secured  for  liim  the  support 
of  the  church.  The  other  party,  who  had  tolerated  Loiiis  only 
as  a  weapon  against  John,  soon  abandoned  their  ally,  and  in 
less  than  a  year  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  France. 

During  Henry  III.'s  long  reign  of  fifty-six  years  the  barons 
struggled  constantly  to  defend  the  charter  which  they  had 
wrested   from    John.     During   the   eleven   years   of    Henry's 


DEFENSK    OF    LlHKKrV    HV   TllK    15AI{i>.\S    (I  l'.i!»-l:.'7i.')      Id:') 


minority  the  govt'niiiient  was  i-aniod  on  by  the  King's  Council 
(a  body  developed  tium  the  original  Curia  Regis),  directed  bv 
two  able  and  patriotic  ministers,  William  Marshall,  Earl     i~3    qj^^j. 
of  Pembroke,  and  Hubert  de  Burgh,  who  defended  alike         ^cter  of 
the  rights  of  the  monarch  and  of  the  people;  but  after  j-eien 

Henry  came  to  his  majority,  his  reign,  from  1227  to  12.")8,  '1216  I272i 
abounded  in  quarrels  between  the  king  and  his  ministers  and 
barons.  By  his  own  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Trovenee,  and 
that  of  one  of  his  sisters 
with  the  Em})eror  Fred- 
erick II.,  Henry  createil 
ties  of  interest  and  affec- 
tion with  foreigners; 
and  the  most  important 
offices  about  the  court, 
together  with  the  major- 
ity of  the  bishoprics  and 
their  temporalities,  were 
given  to  Frenchmen. 
William  of  Valence,  oik- 
of  Eleanor's  uncles,  wa> 
made  Earl  of  Richmond : 
another,  Peter  of  Savoy, 
succeeded  him  in  this 
earldom,  and  in  his  posi- 
tion as  head  of  the  royal 

council,  and  a  third  was  made  Archbishoj)  of  Canterbury. 
French  relatives  of  Henry's  mother,  Isabflla  of  Angouleme, 
also  received  earldoms  and  l)ishoprics.  Under  the  iuHufiice  of 
these  aliens  Ifcnry  adopted  a  Coulinental  ratlicr  than  an  Eng- 
lish policy  ill  goveninifiit. 

'I'his  policy  aiili'd  in  <il)literatiiig  whatever  divisions  still 
remained  between  taiiiilies  of  Anglo-Saxon  slock  and  those  tliat 
dated  from  the  coiupiest.     Normans  and  English  forgot  their 


I    ■  ■!:■  'N  \  I  ION    <il-     IIknhY    II  I 

The  kiiif;  liolds  a  model  of  Westminster  Ab- 
l»('V,  wliich  he  rebuilt.  From  a  twelfth 
eeiiturv  MS. 


16J:  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

differences  in  resisting  Henry's  constant  demands  for  money 

to  supply  the  needs  of  his  foreign  favorites  and  to  pay  for  vari- 

174.  Hen-      ous  expeditions  which  he  was  led  to  undertake  through 

ry  s  anti-       their  influence.     Just  then  came  the  intense  effort  of  the 

English 

policy  Popes  to  be  arbiters  of  the  fate  of  kingdoms.     Henry's 

nine-year-old  son  Edmund  received  from  Pope  Innocent  IV.  a 

grant  of  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  (1254),  in  return  for  which  honor 

Henry  was  expected  to  aid  Innocent  in  his  struggle  against 

the  Hohenstaufen  Emperors  ;  and  as  another  move  in  the  same 

struggle,  Henry's  brother,  Richard  of  Cornwall,  was  encouraged 

to  seek  an  election  as  King  of  the  Romans,  a  preliminary  step 

towai'd  election  as  Emperor  (1257).     Furthermore,  the  Popes 

insisted   upon  having  benefices  and  dignities  bestowed  upon 

foreign  prelates,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  English  clergy. 

In  1252  foreign  clergymen  were  drawing  from  English  sources 

more   than  three  times  the  entire  revenue  of  the  king ;  and 

the   barons,  the   English  clergy,  and   the   commonalty    were 

driven  to  united  protests  against  Henry's  misgovernment. 

Henry  was   determined  to   rule  like  the  kings   of   France, 

without  restraint  from  ministers  or  Parliaments  (as  the  Great 

175   First     Council  meetings  began  to  be  called).     He  left  the  office 

revolt  of  justiciar  vacant   for   twenty-four   years  and  that   of 

Henry  III.      chancellor  for  seventeen  years,   meanwhile  resorting  to 

(1258)  every  form  of  extortion  to  make  good  his  extravagance. 

He  exacted  forced  loans,  kept  bishoprics  and  abbacies  vacant, 

Matthew         ^^^  contracted  debts  amounting  to  four  times  his  annual 

Paris,  income.     Investigation  proved  that  "since  the  king  had 

Majora,  commenced  plundering  and   wasting  the  wealth  of  his 

V.  627.  kingdom,  he  had  expended  950,000  marks,  which  it  was 

dreadful  to  think  of." 

The   climax  of   misgovernment  was   reached  when,  in    the 

Parliament  of  1257,  the  king  announced  that  he  owed  135,000 

marks  to  the  Pope,  and  demanded  an  aid  amounting  to  one 

tenth  of  all  the  revenues  of  the   church,  together  with   the 


UEFKNSK    OF    LIBEiri'V    UY     lllK    I'.AKONS    (1  U«»-127-_')       Itjo 


Wkst  Fkoxt  of  Wells  Cathkukal. 
Built  1206-140(j. 


income  of  all  vacant  l)encHces  for  five  years  ;  ami  the  next 
year  he  demanded  a  tax  "of  one  third  of  all  the  goods  in 
tlie  real  Hi."  Parlia- 
ment refiKsed,  and  it 
was  agreed  that  a 
commission  of  twen- 
ty-four members,  rep- 
resenting both  the 
king  and  the  barons, 
should  report  at  Ox- 
ford in  regard  to 
reforms  in  the  king- 
dom, in  the  royal 
household,  and  in  the 
church. 

The  results  of  this  commission  appear  in  the  so-called  Pro- 
visions of  Oxford  (June,  1258),  which  called  for  the  creation 

of  a  permanent  council  of  fifteen  advisers  to  the  king,      ,„^     .„ 
'^   .  "       176     Pro- 

wlio,  with  the  great  officers  of  state  (the  justiciars  and      visions  of 
the  chancellor),  were  to  supervise  the  administration  of  Oxford 

the  goverament,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  ti.scal  and  ecclesi- 
astical reforms.  A  so-called  "Parliament"  was  to  assemble 
three  times  a  year,  whether  summoned  or  not;  but  this  was  to 
consist  only  of  the  fifteen  councilors  and  of  "  twelve  honest 
men  "  chosen  by  the  barons  to  meet  with  the  councilors  and 
**  treat  of  the  wants  of  the  King  and  of  his  kingdom."  liy  this 
device,  ostensibly  adopted  to  relieve  the  general  body  of  the 
barons  from  the  cost  of  attending  I'arliament,  the  tyranny  of 
thf  king  was  re{>laced  by  an  oligarchy  of  the  barons. 

For  three  years  the  barons  had  free  sway,  fur  the  alien  friends 
of  the  king  fled  to  France;  but  the  king  first  intrigued  to  stir 
up  discord  among  the  barons,  and  then  attemi)ted  to  reassert 
his  own  anthorit}-.  After  an  indecisive  struggle  between 
tiarons  and  king.  King  Louis  IX.  of  France  was  asked  to  arbi- 


166  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

trate   between   the   contestants.     By   the  "  Mise   [treaty]    of 

Amiens  "  (1263)  Louis,  who  was  accnstouied  to  think  of  kings 

as  absohite  rulers,  annulled  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  ;  but  he 

stipulated  that  Henry's  foes  should  receive  full  amnesty,  and 

that  all  charters  granted  in  the  past  should  be  held  valid. 

The  champion  of  the  baronial  party,  and  the  head  of  the 

council  of  fifteen,  was  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  a 

177.  Second   nobleman  of  French  descent,   who  had  gained  military 

iDe  Mont-       experience  as  a   crusader,  and    had  proved   himself   an 
fort  s)  rebel-        ^  '  ^ 

lion  (1264)  able  and  fearless  governor  over  the  turbulent  province 
of  Gascony.  De  Montfort  was  resolved  not  to  submit  to 
Louis's  decision,  a  resolve  in  wdiich  he  was  supported  by  the 
citizens  of  London,  the  burgesses  of  the  other  important  towns, 
the  more  patriotic  members  .of  the  clergy,  and  the  masses  of 
the  people.  He  accordingly  renewed  the  contest,  and  attacked 
Rochester  with  a  force  of  Londoners.  The  king  and  his  eldest 
son.  Prince  Edward,  after  some  success  in  the  midlands,  met 
the  rebellious  army  near  the  castle  of  Lewes,  in  Sussex  (May, 
1264).  De  Montfort  offered  to  surrender  and  make  recompense 
for  all  damages  inflicted  during  the  recent  contests,  if  the  mon- 
arch would  but  reconfirm  the  Provisions  of  Oxford.  'This  offer 
having  been  refused,  the  forces  joined  battle.  Although  De 
Montfort  won  a  decisive  victory,  and  captured  both  Henry  and 
his  son,  yet  he  acted  with  great  moderation,  and  even  agreed  to 
a  fresh  arbitration  by  the  king  of  France. 

In   the   meantime,   a  new   council   of   nine    members   was 

created,  three  of  whom  (De  Montfort,  the  Earl  of  Gloucester, 

and  the  Bishop  of  Chichester)  virtually  controlled   the 

experiment    king's  business.     The  Pope,  the  king  of  France,  and  the 

ment^bv"^'      foreign  party  in  England,  all  set  to  work  to  undermine 

barons  this  government,  which  so  seriously  threatened  the  king's 

'  independence.     De  Montfort   turned   to   the  nation  for 

support,  and,  in  his  capacity  as  chief  minister  of  the  crown, 

summoned   a   Parliament  to   meet    in    January,   1265.     This 


DEFKNiSK    OF    l,II?KIMV    15V     rilK    15Al{(iNS    (1100-127L')       ItIT 

Parliament  is  notable  in  English  history  because  De  Mont- 
fort  summoned  not  only  lords,  churchmen,  and  knights  as 
representatives  of  the  shires,  but  also  representatives  from 
the  boroughs  and  cities.  Its  importance  in  the  history  of  a 
representative  Parliament  will  be  discussed  later  (§  193;.  Its 
immediate  effect  was  slight,  since  it  was  packed'  with 
friends  of  De  Montfort,  and  failed  to  pass  any  measures  of 
lasting  importance;  but  it  proved  the  weakness  of  the  oli- 
garchical form  of  government,  and  showed  that  De  IMontfort, 
at  least,  felt  the  need  of  national  support  in  a  ruovement  for 
the  defense  of  the  national  liberties. 

A  quarrel  soon  arose  in  the  council  between  De  l\Iontfort 
and  the  Earl  of  Gloucester ;  and  the  latter,  joining  forces  with 
Prince  Edward,  began  a  civil  war  by  operations  in  the  west. 
In  a  battle  fought  at  Evesham  on  August  4,  1265,  De  Montfort 
was  killed,  and  the  king's  return  to  power  naturally  followed 
Within  a  year  Henry  became  absolute  master  throughout 
P^ngland,  and  met  with  no  further  resistance  up  to  his  death 
in  1272. 


The  reign  of  John  had  two  conflicting  results.     His  failure 
in  his  quarrel  with  the  Pope  greatly  increased  the  influence  of 
aliens  over  the  church  in  England  ;    but  the  loss  of  his     i^g    gym. 
French   fiefs   left   England   free    to   develop   politically  ™ary 

without  foreign  entanglement;  and  at  the  same  tinie  Magna 
( 'harta  laid  down  splendid  principles  of  I^nglish  liberty  which 
have  never  died  out.  Thenceforward  England  made  rai)id 
])rogress  towards  a  genuinely  national  lift-,  a  progress  curi- 
ously j.arallel  to,  yet  different  from,  that  made  in  France  dur- 
ing the  same  jteriod.  In  France  the  kings,  es|tecially  John's 
contemporary,  I'hilip  Augustus,  combined  with  the  towns  to 
Im-ak  the  i)o\vcr  of  the  tyrannical  barons;  in  England  the 
liarons  became  defenders  of  popular  liberty  against  tyrannical 
kings.     Their  action  helped  to  develop  a  new  King's  Council, 


\ 


168 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


with  functions  varying  at  different  periods  from  the  simple 
giving  of  advice  to  almost  unlimited  control  over  the  king's 
actions.  But  the  events  of  Henry  III.'s  reign  proved  that 
neither  king  nor  barons  could  be  trusted  with  unlimited 
powers.  Meanwhile,  the  successive  contests  helped  to  create 
a  genuine  national  sentiment,  to  teach  each  party  to  respect 
the  other,  and  to  show  the  importance  of  a  system  of  govern- 
ment carefully  defined  in  constitutional  charters. 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


TOPICS 

(1)  By  what  right  and  what  precedents  could  the  barons  justify 
their  action  in  making  John  Itiug  instead  of  Artliur  ?  (2)  Why 
should  John  disobey  Philip's  summons  ?  (3)  Upon  whom  did  the 
burden  of  the  interdict  really  fall,  and  what  did  Innocent  III.  hope 
to  accomplish  by  it  ?  (4)  Cite  other  instances  of  the  deposition 
of  a  monarch  by  a  Pope.  (5)  How  would  John's  reduction  to  a 
state  of  vassalage  affect  the  attitude  of  the  nation  toward  the  Pope  ? 
(0)  What  is  the  exact  import  of  the  phrase  "  the  judgment  of  his 
peers"  ?  So  far  as  possible,  trace  in  the  previous  history  of  Eng- 
land the  origin  of  the  evils  rehearsed  in  Magna  Charta.  (8)  Which 
of  these  seem  inevitable  under  the  political  system  then  existing  ? 
(9)  How  do  you  account  for  the  decision  of  Louis  IX.  ?  (10) 
What  weakness  in  Magna  Charta  did  the  reign  of  Hebry  III.  dis- 
close ?  (11)  Why  should  the  trading  towns,  with  London  at  their 
head,  have  been  the  chief  supporters  of  De  Montfort  ? 

(12)  The  common  elements  in  the  successive  charters  issued  by 
the  Plantagenet  monarchs  to  the  nation.  (13)  A  study  of  the  14th, 
36th,  39th,  and  40th  articles  of  Magna  Charta.  (14)  London  in  the 
thirteenth  century.-  (15)  Simon  de  Montfort  the  Elder.  (16)  A 
comparison  of  De  Montfort  and  Becket.  (17)  American  claims 
to  the  liberties  of  Magna  Charta.  (18)  Why  was  Magna  Charta 
written  in  Latin  ?     (19)  Did  Magna  Charta  help  the  villeins  ? 


Geography 


Secondary- 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  142,  157  ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  map  12  ;  Poole, 
Historical  Atlas,  map  Iv.  ;  Reich,  JSTew  Students''  Atlas,  maps  10,  11. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  I.  126-170 ;  Gardiner,  Studeiifs 
History,  chs.  xii.  xiii.  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  167-200 ; 
Green,  Short  History,  15-16,  122-132,  Ul-WO,  —  History  of  the 


DKFKNSK    <>K    I^II'.KIMV    IJV     I'llK    1!.\  li<  i.\>   ,  i  |;i..._i_'7jj       1»;;) 

£■«(/(';■  s7i  I'xifilf,  bk.  ii.  rli.  iv.,  bk.  iii.  elis.  i.-iii.  ;  Moiiia^'iu-.  Ele- 
ments of  Ciiiiittitutiiinal  Ilistonj,  r)l-(J8  ;  Stubbs,  Early  PlfintUf/- 
enets.  chs.  vii.-ix.,  —  Selti-t  Charters,  29-^J5,  —  Conntitutiunnl 
History,  II.  §§  loS-178  ;  I'owell  and  Tout,  History  of  Etojlntnl, 
bk.  iii.  clis.  iii.  iv.  ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  cli.  viii.  ;  Linp;ard, 
History  of  Emjland,  II.  chs.  ii.  iii.;  Norgate,  John  Lackland; 
liauisay,  The  Angevin  Empire,  chs.  xxiii.  xx.\.  ;  Traill.  Social 
England,  I.4i)8— 115;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xiii.  xiv. ;  Uicliard.son, 
ITie  Xatiiinal  Movement  in  the  lieitjn  of  Henry  III. ;  .M.  Creigliton, 
Historical  Lectures  and  ^Ihlresses,  11(3-148,  —  Siuuni  de  Muntforf  ; 
I'rolluTO,  Simon  de  Montfort  ;  Taswell-Laiigniead,  Constitutional 
History,  oh.  iv. ;  Creasy,  liise  and  Proijress  of  the  Eni/lish  Consti- 
tution, chs.  xi.-xiii. ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  Eni/lish 
iMir,  I.  bk.  i.  ch.  iii. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  22-36 ;  Colby.  Sources 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  21»-^31  ;•  Kendall,  Source- Hook, 
ch.  V. ;  Ilill.  Lihirty  Documents,  ch.  ii.  ;  Henderson,  Select  Docu- 
ments, 1:55-148,  4;JO-431  ;  Ilowland,  Ordeals,  Compurgation,  etc. 
(University  of  Pennsylvania  Keprint.s,  IV.  no.  4)  ;  llutton.  Mis- 
rule of  H'liry  III., —  Simon  de  Montfort  and  his  Cause;  Gee 
and  Ilanly,  Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  xxiv.-xxvii.  See 
New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  241-242, — 
Historical  Sources,  l-'A. 

Bates  and  C'oinan,   English  History  told  hy  English  Poets,  81-    illustrative 
93;    (i.    P.    H.   Janu-.s,    Fonst    Days;    Shakespeare,   King  John;    '^°^^^ 
Yonge,    II"    t\,,isi,il.i,'  nf  ih,    Tninr. 


SCOTLAND 

Slieriflfdoms  In  1300 

SCALE  CF  MILES 


1 


^^'|•st        4  from  Greenwich 


170 


CHAPTER    XTT. 

KIKST  STEPS   IX    rAKMAMKNTARV  GOVERNMENT  (1272-1307) 

Henry  III.'s  son,  Edward  I.,  who  became  king  in  lL'71'.  was 
thirty-tliree  years  of  age  at  his  accession.     His  military  expe- 
rience in  the  barons'  wars,  and  later  in  the  seventh  and 
,  -     ,      ^,  ,  /  ,  180    Char- 

last  of  the  L  rusades,  made  him  an  able  soldier ;  but  his         acter  of 

claim  to  greatness  lay  in  his  strong  political  instinct.  Edward  I. 
The  legal  bent  of  his  mind  led  him  to  ask  of  every  action, 
both  of  king  and  of  subject,  "  Is  this  act  constitutional '.' " 
To  answer  this  question,  he  was  compelled  to  give  definite 
form  to  constitutional  principles:  and  he  therefore  stands 
forth  as  the  greatest  English  lawgiver. 

Edward's  instinct  for  system  made  him  anxious  to  unite  all 
Britain  under  a  single  monarch,  and,  at  the  very  beginning  of 
his   reign,   events   made  it  possible   for   him  to  change        181    An- 
Wales  from  a  vassal  principality  into  an  integral  part    °®*^^°  °' 
of   the   kingdom.     At   Edward's    coronation,   Llewelyn,  (1284) 

Prince  of  Wales,  refused  to  attend  and  do  homage  for  his 
principality;  but  in  1277  he  was  induced  to  recognize  Ed- 
ward's suzerainty.  Five  years  later  he  again  rebelled,  occu- 
pied three  of  Edward's  castles,  seized  the  person  of  the 
justiciar  of  Wales,  and  committed  outrages  upon  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  English  marches.  Edward  promptly  invaded 
north  Wales ;  Llewelyn  was  captured  and  killed,  and  soon  all 
Wales  submitted  to  him. 

Western  Wales  remained  a  distinct  province,  not  repre- 
sented in  Parliament,  but  governed  under  a  special  ctxle,  en- 
titled the  Statute  of  Wales,  which  roughly  copied  the  laws 

171 


172 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


Coronet  of  the  Prince 
OF  Wales. 

Gold,  with  inner  cap  of 
crimson  velvet,  edged 
with  ermine. 


and  system  of  administration  by  shires  prevailing  in  England. 
Eastern  Wales  remained  in  the  control 
of  the  lords  of  the  marches,  under 
feudal  law.  In  1301,  the  king's  son 
Edward,  who  had  been  born  at  Car- 
narvon castle  in  1284,  was  given 
Llewelyn's  forfeited  title  of  "Prince 
of  Wales  " ;  since  that  time  it  has  been 
customary  to  bestow  this  title  upon 
the  eldest  sons  of  English  monarchs, 
and  occasionall}^  it  has  been  bestowed 
upon  younger  sons  who  have  become 
heirs  to  the  crown. 
Edward  strongly  desired  to  bring  Scotland  as  well  as  Wales 
into  a  closer  union  with  England,  by  inducing  the  kings  of 
182.  Ed-  Scotland  to  do  homage  for  their  entire  kingdoms,  instead 
ward's  su-  of  for  their  English  fiefs  alone;  and  in  a  contest  over  the 
over  Scot-  succession  to  the  Scottish  throne  which  took  place  in 
land  ]^290,  he  found  his  opportunity.     Three  of  the  thirteen 

claimants  —  Robert  Bruce,  John  Baliol,  and  John  Hastings  — 
could  present  plausible  grounds  for  their  claims  ;  and  to  avoid 
civil  strife  it  was  agreed  betw^een  these  claimants  and  the 
Council  of  Regency  that  the  judicial-minded  king  of  England 
should  be  asked  to  arbitrate  in  the  matter.  Edward  demanded 
that  he  should  be  recognized  as  overlord  by  that  claimant  to 
whom  he  should  award  the  crown,  and  the  Scotch  barons  had 
to  consent  to  his  demand  or  face  a  war  with  a  powerful  state 
while  their  own  lacked  a  head;  they  therefore  sullenly 
yielded  their  castles  to  Edward  and  acknowledged  his  suzer^ 
ainty.  In  1291  Edward  fairly  enough  awarded  the  crown  to 
John  Baliol  and  received  the  latter's  homage  "for  himself 
and  his  heirs." 

Two  years  later  war  broke  out  between  France  and  England, 
and  Edward  demanded  that  his  Scottish  vassal  should  aid  him 


i 


KIN(;S  OF  SCOTLAXn 
1034-1513 


DUNCAN  I. 

Kiiri  1.4..  1,,  hi,  ,„„,io  MACBETH 


MarK«m=MALCOLM  III. 


Grmixl<l«u(btcr  of 


EDGAR  ALEXANDER  I. 


DONALD  BANE 


DUNCAN  II. 


DAVID  I. 


Maillda=    HENfl*' I. 

uf  Eailmnd 


MALCOLM  IV. 


WILLIAM 

I  ■  ■    L     r. 

I 

ALEXANDER  II. 


ALEXANDER  III. 


Hargurel 

Hurled  u 

ERIC 

ElAf  wf  ^orrmj 


MARGARET 

Tb«M»ll..f  N.r..j 

iaw-i»iu 


David 

£ul  dTUtiDtlocdoa 


Margarft 
CevorguUla 


1 

Isabella 

I 

JlobercBruce 

Hie  cUlmuit  In  13«U 


IIi.'ury 
Hastings 


JOHN  BALIOL  Margaret       Kobert  John 

iswiB*  I  Bruce  Hastings 

Edward  Ballol         John  Oomyn 

PntalxM  Kll(,  T33S-I3S0'  KUUd,  1306 

ROBERT  BRUCE 

. __J_ 


'EOWARO  I.  4ttt^MiA 
13««.ia07 


DAVID  II. 


EOWARO  II.   sfEaclud 
Pmmlal  Klai  id  Bootlud 

iju;-i«n 


Walter  sit- wurt  =pMargaret 
ROBERT  II. 


ROBERT  III. 

I 

JAMES  I. 

I 

JAMES  II. 

lt3M4u« 
I 

JAMES  III. 

lM0.1i<w 
I 

JAMES  IV. 

Wt-\I>\1 
IP   SM) 


173 


174 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


against  the  French.     Tlie  Scottish  barons  resented  this  call, 
and,  instead  of  obeying,  formed  an  alliance  between  France  and 
183    First     -Scotland  which   lasted  (with   brief  intermissions)   more 
Scottish  war   than    three    hundred   years.      Baliol  was   placed   under 
''  the  control   of  a  committee  of  peers,  and  in  1296  was 

compelled  to  renounce  all  allegiance  to  England.  Edward  at 
once  attacked  Scotland.  In  four  months  he  took  Berwick, 
Edinburgh,  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Dunbar  —  a  series  of  victories 
which  made  him  master  of  the  situation.  He 
promptly  declared  Baliol's  crown  forfeited  for 
treason  against  his  overlord,  had  himself  pro- 
claimed king  of  Scotland,  and  transferred  the 
ancient  coronation  seat  of  the  Scottish  kings 
from  Scone  to  Westminster  Abbey. 

Later,  while  Edward  was  occupied  with 
France,  the  Scots,  inspired  by  a  gentleman 
of  the  Lowlands,  William  Wallace,  at- 
— -  tempted  to  expel  the  English.  For  a 
year  Wallace  made  repeated  gains  by 
able  strategy ;  but  on  Edward's  return 
in  1298  the  forces  of  AYalkce  were 
utterly  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Fal- 
kirk. The  Scots,  however,  continued 
the  struggle  for  a  time,  but  by  the  year 
1304  almost  all  Scotland  had  been  reduced  to  submission  by 
Edward.  Wallace  now  carried  on  a  guerrilla  warfare,  w^as 
outlawed  as  a  rebel,  and  finally  was  captured  and  executed 
as  a  traitor  (1305). 

Edw^ard   now  imposed   upon   Scotland   a   new  constitution, 

under  which  the  government  was  intrusted   to  a   council   of 

184.  Sec-       Scottish  nobles,  and  the  Scottish  people  were  represented 

on     CO  tis     -j^  ^i^g  English  Parliament :  but  it  divided  the  country  into 
war  °  '  '' 

(1306-1307)   shires  similar  to  the  English  counties,  deprived  the  Scot- 
tish nobles  of  their  castles,  and  in  other  ways  outraged  the 


CoKONATiON  Chair,  West- 
minster Abbey. 

Containing  the  "  Stone  of 
Scone." 


FIIJST   STKi'S   IN   rAKLIA.MKNTAUY   (JOVEKNMKNT     ITo 


national  \n'u\e  of  the  Scots.  They  tlierefore  speedily  broke  out 
in  fresh  rebellion,  under  the  leadership  of  youiif,'  Robert  Bruce, 
grandson  of  that  Kobert 
Bruce  who  had  claimed 
the  throne  in  1290.  This 
young  man  had  hitherto 
sui)ported  Edward,  hop- 
ing to  be  given  the  crown 
forfeited  by  Baliol ;  but 
now  he  threw  off  the 
mask  of  friendship,  and 
induced  the  Scots  to 
crown  him  as  king  at 
Scone  in  1306. 

On  hearing  of  this  new 
breach  of  faith,  Edward 
made  a  solemn  vow  that 
he  would  punish  that 
*•  l)erjifred  and  rebellious 
country  of  outlaws."  lie 
invaded  Scotland,  routed 
the  Scottish  army,  and  drove  Bruce  from  the  mainland  to  the 
Hebrides ;  but  in  July,  1307,  Edward  died  while  about  to  lead 
an  expedition  from  Carlisle  into  Scotland.  His  death  gave  an 
opportiuiity  for  Bruce,  who  had  returned  from  exile,  to  pre- 
pare an  organized  resistance  to  Edward's  successor. 

Notable  as  were  tiiese  events,  they  were  far  less  important 
than  the  great  administrative  and  legislative  reforms  whitli 
made  Edward's  reign  memorable.      He  seized,  with  the        igs.  Re- 
instinct  of  a  statesman,  niton  the  best  ideas  of  liis  ereat   ^ormsmthe 

'  ^  judicial 

predecessor,  1I«muv  II.,  and  molded  and  elalM)rated  theni.  system 

(1 )  ICdward  I.  completed  tlir  breaking  up  fif  the  Curia  Regis 
into  separate  courts,  each  with  its  own  judicial  staff:  the  Court 
of   the    KxcluMpuT   had  entire  control  of   casfs  affecting  the 


The  Bkitk  .Md.m'mknt,  Stirmno. 


176  CULMINATION   OF  FEUDALISM 

revenue  of  the  state ;  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  had  juris- 
diction in  suits  between  private  individuals ;  and  the  Court 
of  the  King's  Bench  heard  cases  to  which  the  crown  was  a 
party,  including  appeals  from  the  lower  courts.  The  king's 
chancellor  was  given  jurisdiction  in  cases  where  there  was  no 
adequate  remedy  at  common  law,  a  practice  from  which  later 
sprang  the  equity  Court  of  Chancery.  In  the  Circuit  Courts 
of  Assize,  the  judges  were  assigned  to  special  circuits,  and 
their  duties  were  clearly  defined.  In  trials  by  jury,  witnesses 
were  permitted  and  the  original  twelve  jurymen  became  merely 
judges  of  the  evidence  presented. 

(2)  Up  to  this  time  there  had  been  no  good  system  for  pre- 
venting crime  and  punishing  criminal's.     By  the  old  system  of 

186.  Crea-     "frankpledge,"  men  were  divided  into  groups,  and  each 
tion  of  local   gj^.Q^p  ^g^g  j^gif]^  responsible  for  crimes  committed  by  any 
system  one  of  its  members ;  that  is,  the  group  was  bound  to  de- 
liver him  to  the  sheriff,  or  pay  his  fine.     On  the  discovery  of  a 

Decree  of       Crime,  the  citizens  generally  were  bound  to  follow  the 
1195  «  hue  and  cry  "  in  pursuit  of  offenders,  on  penalty  of  be- 

ing held  as  malefactors  themselves.  Edward  now  added  the 
system  of  "  watch  and  ward,"  by  which  towns  were  required 
to  maintain  constables  on  watch,  and  to  put  strangers  under 
ward,  at  night ;  he  also  caused  "  conservators  of  the  peace  "  to 
be  appointed  from  among  the  knights  in  every  county,  to  hold 
for  trial  persons  charged  with  crime;  and  he  had  the  high- 

c,  .  .    ^      ways  between  market  towns  widened,  so  that  there  might 
statute  of  "^  7  o 

Westi7iin-       be  "neither  dyke,  underwood,  nor  bush,  whereby  a  man 
*  ^^'      ^        might  lurk  to  do  hurt,"  within  two  hundred  feet  on  each 
side  of  the  road. 

(3)  During  the  thirteenth  century,  many  landholders  began 
to  find   the  conditions  of  feudal  tenure  burdensome,  and   to 

187.  devise  schemes  for  lightening  feudal  restraints  and  obli- 

Changes  in     orations.    One  scheme  was  to  make  a  sham  transfer  of  the 

tenure  of        '^ 

land  land  to  some  church  corporation  (since  the  church  was 


FIRST   STEPS   IN    I'AKLIAMENTAHY   GOVEKNMEXT     177 

«>xpni|»t  from  certain  feudal  dues);  anothfr  was  to  divide  the 
land  hy  sul)iufeudatii>n,  so  tliat  the  landholder  received  au 
income  from  the  various  "incidents"  due  from  his  mesne 
tenants,  while  the  hold  of  the  king  and  the  greater  lords  over 
their  part  of  the  fief  was  correspondingly  weakened.  Edward 
attacked  these  evils  in  the  Statute  of  Mortmain  (1279),  which 
forbade  persons  to  place  land  in  the  ''dead  hand  "  of  the  church, 
and  in  the  two  Statutes  of  Westminster  (1285  and  1289),  which 
fixed  the  conditions  under  which  land  could  be  transferred  to 
laymen.  The  Statute  of  1285  (de  donis  conditio ncdih us)  permit- 
ted owners  to  "  entail "  their  estates,  so  that  they  could  not  be 
sold  in  fragments  but  must  pass  as  a  whole  from  parent  to 
child ;  the  Statute  of  1289  stopped  any  further  subinfeudation 
by  providing  that  whenever  a  vassal  sold  laud,  the  new  owner 
owed  service  and  dues  directly  to  the  lord  of  the  person  from 
whom  he  bought  it. 

(4)  So  long  as  land  was  the  only  or  the  principal  source  of 
wealth,  feudal  dues  (virtually  a  tax  on  real  estate)  naturally 
constituted  the  chief   source  of   revenue  for  the  state;    188    Taxa- 

but  by  the  time  of  Edward  I.  a  second  source  of  w^^alth     tio^^o'"^; 
''  ports  and 

was  disfovcred  in  foreign  commerce,  and  Edward  tried  exports 

to  make  the  merchant  bear  his  share  of  the  public  burdens. 
This  was  the  more  necessary  because  the  Danegeld  was  no 
longer  collected,  and  because  in  1290  Edward  was  forced  by 
the  pressure  of  public  opinion  to  expel  all  the  Jews  from 
England. 

At  that  time  it  was  believed  that  exports  reduce  the  sum 
total  of  wealth  within  the  country  ;  and  that  imports  injure 
the  dealers  in  home  products  by  flooding  the  country  with 
foreign  wares.  The  sovereign  was  therefore  ])ermitted,  as 
giiardian  of  the  general  welfare,  to  lay  duties  upon  both  im- 
ports and  exj)orts.  Edward  developed  an  elaborate  system  of 
export  duties,  i^rincipally  bearing  upon  the  wool  trade  with 
Flanders,     lie  also  imposed  im]»ort  duties,  which  foreign  mer- 


178  CULMINATION  OF  FEUDALISM 

chants  were  glad  to  pay  in  exchange  for  special  trade 
privileges  at  English  seaports. 

(5)  The  inhabitants  of  market  and  manufacturing  towns  had 
been  rapidly  amassing  wealth  in  the  form  of  salable  goods,  and 

189.  Taxa-  the  kings  reached  this  form  of  wealth  by  a  tax  on  "mov- 
'^°°  °^  ables/'  corresponding  to  the  modern  tax  on  personal  prop- 
property        erty.     In  1188  Henry  II.  levied  the  first  extraordinary 

tax  of  this  kind  in  England,  and  later  kings  resorted  to  it  at 
intervals ;  but  Edward  made  it  a  part  of  his  system  for  raising 
a  revenue  from  the  towns  and  boroughs  on  the  royal  demesne, 
which  by  their  charters  had  secured  a  ridiculously  small  firma 
burgi  levy  in  commutation  of  the  sums  formerly  paid  to  their 
lords.  Henceforth,  whenever  the  king  made  a  request  through 
Parliament  for  a  special  grant  from  feudal  tenants,  special  fiscal 
officers  were  sent  to  the  above-mentioned  towns  to  levy  a  tax 
of  one  fifteenth  of  their  movables. 

(6)  Since  these  various  sources  of  income  were  insufficient 
to  meet  the  expenses  of  Edward's  many  enterprises,  he  tried 

to  raise   large   sums  by  levying  direct   taxes  upon   the 

190.  Taxa.-  •  i       i 
tion  of  the      clergy,  and   thus   brought  on   a   new  struggle  with  the 

clergy  church.     So  far  from  refusing  to  share  the  burdens  of 

the  state,  the  clergy  had  on  several  occasions  previous  to  1294 
contributed  a  tenth  of  their  annual  income  toward  Edward's 
expenses.  In  that  year  the  necessities  of  his  war  with  France 
led  him  not  only  to  demand  a  half  of  their  annual  income,  but 
also  to  demand  as  a  right  what  had  before  been  granted  as  a 
free  gift.  He  actually  frightened  the  clergy  into  paying  this 
exorbitant  tax,  which  yielded  him  £105,000;  but  soon  the 
threat  of  a  new  war  with  France  led  to  new  demands,  and  the 
clergy  refused  to  make  a  grant  (1296),  on  the  groinul  that  in 
a  recent  bull  {Clericis  Laicos)  Pope  P.oniface  VIII.  had  for- 
bidden the  clergy  to  pay  any  tax  upon  demand  of  the  secular 
authority,  under  penalty  of  excommunication. 

Instead  of  entering  upon  a  contest  witli  the  Pope  after  the 


FllJSr    STKl'S    IN    rAlUJAMKMAKV    (ii  »V1;1{NMI:n  T     170 

manner  of  Homy  II.  or  of  Jolui,  Edward  simply  announced 
that  if  the  clergy  would  not  contribute  like  other  citizens 
toward  the  support  of  the  state,  they  shoidd  receive  none  of 
that  i»rotectiou  which  the  state  offered  to  other  citizens.  If 
this  were  withdrawn,  the  clergy,  although  liable  to  suits  insti- 
tuted by  laymen,  would  be  unable  to  bring  suit  against  jtheir 
vassals  for  their  i)roperty  or  for  rents ;  and  they  would  have  no 
redress  against  acts  of  highway  robbery  or  depredations  of  any 
sort.  When  Edwai'd  further  threatened  to  confiscate  all  their 
property,  the  clergy  were  compelled  to  yield  the  tax, 

Edward's  victory  over  the  church  would  have  been  complete 
hatl  he  not  at  the  critical  moment  offended  the  barons  by 
demanding  that  they  should  take  a  force  into  Gascony    jg^  pariia- 

to  attack  France  from  the  south,  while  he  himself  led  ment  s 

control 
another  into  Flanders  for  a  similar  attack  from  the  north,    over  special 

The  barons  refused  to  leave  England,  on  the  ground  that,  taxation 
although  by  their  oath  they  were  bound  to  attend  Edward 
in  the  field,  they  were  not  bound  to  take  the  Held  without  him. 
Aided  by  the  disaffected  clergy,  and  by  the  merchants,  who 
hoped  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the  duties  on  commerce,  they 
compelled  the  king  to  make  a  most  far-reaching  concession: 
he  permitted  the  Prince  of  Wales  (after  his  own  departure  for 
France)  to  issue  tlie  so-called  Confinnatio  Cartancm,  or  con- 
firmation of  former  charters.  It  was  based  ui)on  Magna  C'harta, 
but  it  contained  seven  additional  clauses,  the  most  important 
of  which  nuide  illegal  any  tax  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment, "saving  the  ancient  aids  and  prises  due  and  accustomed.'* 
This  clause  gave  tf)  tlie  national  legislature  that  control  over 
the  jiublic  pnrsf  which  later  served  to  make  it  the  supreme 
authority  in  the  realm.  It  marks  the  climax  in  a  long  proc- 
ess of  parliamentary  development,  and  ofTfis  an  (HM-asiou  for 
reviewing  its  ri.se  and  growth. 

The  student  will  rememlior  that  in  the  Angli>-Saxon  stale 
two  diverse  elements  were  combined — tli»'  democratic  in  tlie 


180 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


national,  shire,  and  town  moots,  and  the  aristocratic  in  the 

Witan.    This  double  system  lasted  after  the  Norman  conquest; 

192.  Class     but  very  soon  the  weaker  portions  of  the  aristocratic  body 

distinctions    |^^^^  ^^^  j^-^^  hands  with  the  democracy,  the  meetings  of 


in  Parlia- 
ment 


the  Magnum  Concilium  gradually  became  limited  to  the 
larger  landowners  (§  100),  and  these  greater  barons,  or  "mag- 
nates," by  custom  acquired  the  right  to  be  notified  of  a  con- 
templated meeting  of  the  council  b}^  a  personal  writ,  while  the 


The  Old  Housks  of  Parliament  at  Westminster.     (Burned  in  1834.) 

lesser  tenants  in  chief  were  summoned  by  the  sheriffs  in  gen- 
eral writs  for  the  whole  shire.  This  distinction  was  expressed 
by  Magna  Charta,  which  declared  that  archbishops,  bishops, 
abbots,  earls,  and  greater  barons  should  receive  individual 
summonses.  All  those  distinguished  enough  to  receive  this 
w^rit  came  to  form  an  aristocratic  class,  the  so-called  "  peers  of 
the  realm,"  while  the  lesser  barons  were  brought  down  among 
the  knights  and  freeholders  and  members  of  town  corpora- 
tions, with  whom  they  constituted  a  new  ])olitical  body,  the 
"commons"  of  England;  but  not  till  centuries  later  did  the 
commons  include  the  masses  of  the  people. 

Before  the  reign  of  John,  the  commons  had  practically  no 
share  in  the  national  government,  although  its  members  were 


FIRST    STKl'S    IN    I'AULl  AM  KMAKV    (ioVKlJ.NMKNT      ISl 

all-powerful  in  the  shire,  where  the  knights  ami  ireelioklers  con- 
trolled the  shire  moots,  served  on  juries,  took  part  in  the  elec- 
tion of  sheritt's,  assessors,  and  collectors,  voted  on  matters  ^93  ^ 
of  police,  finance,  and  administration,  and  took  action  on  resentation 
the  royal  orders  published  by  the  sheriffs.  The  turbulent  °  monsTn 
events  of  John's  reign  placed  in  their  hands  a  power  Parliament 
over  the  national  government  which  they  never  relincpushed. 
In  iL'li^  each  town  was  asked  to  send  to  the  assembly  at  St. 
Albans  its  reeve  and  four  men  to  assess  the  damages  suffered 
by  the  clergy  (§§  167,  168),  and  in  the  same  year  each  shire 
was  required  to  elect  at  the  shire  moot  four  representatives  to 
attend  the  Great  Council  at  Oxford.  These  meetings,  and 
De  Montfort's  Parliament  of  1265  (§  178),  served  as  precedents 
for  Edward  1.  when  he  summoned  his  Model  Parliament  in 
1295.  To  this,  as  to  every  subsequent  Parliament,  were  sum- 
moned, by  special  writs,  the  peers  of  the  realm  (now  called 
lords  temporal)  and  the  archbishops  and  bishops  (now  called 
lords  spiritual) ;  ami  by  general  writs  issued  to  the  sheriffs  of 
the  several  counties,  were  also  summoned  two  knights  from 
each  county,  and  two  citizens  or  buigesses  from  each  of  the 
important  cities  and  boroughs.  Besides  these  two  great 
classes,  representatives  of  the  chapters  of  cathedrals  and  of 
the  ])arochial  clergy  were  summoned  by  writs  addressed  to  the 
several  bishops. 

A  rejiresentative  Parliament  was  the  natural  body  to  solve 
the  king's  money  difficulties.  William  I.,  as  we  have  seen, 
lived  '"of  his  own";   but,  as  the  state  grew  larger,  his   194  Parha- 

suocessors  had  to   siiend    more  and  more  on  the  iJublic       ment  and 
'  '  the  money 

service,  and   to  call   upon   their   vassals  nmrc    and   more  power 

freq\icntly  for  money  aids.  At  first  they  made  their  de- 
mands on  the  barons  at  a  session  of  the  (Jreat.  Cduiicil,  (tn 
the  counties  through  the  sheritYs  at  the  county  moots,  and  on 
the  boroughs  through  agents  sent  to  treat  with  the  corporation 
officers;    but   it    was    much    easier   and    (|uick»"r   *■•    >;>immon 


182  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

representatives  from  the  counties  and  boroughs  to  gather  at 
the  same  time  and  place  as  the  Great  Council. 

The  fact  that  the  sums  voted,  although  often  required  for 
public  uses,  were  apparently  gifts  to  the  king,  led  to  two 
results.  (1)  It  enabled  the  nation  to  bargain  with  the 
monarch,  demanding  good  government  in  return  for  money, 
and  securing  tangible  guarantees  of  their  right  to  good  govern- 
ment in  the  form  of  charters  signed  and  sealed ;  and,  al- 
though these  were  often  violated,  yet  whenever  grave  tyranny 
provoked  a  revolt,  they  could  be  quoted  by  the  rebels  as  a 
defense  against  the  charge  of  treason.  (2)  Until  Parliament 
gained  the  right  of  making  laws,  in  addition  to  its  duty  of 
voting  supplies,  representation  therein  was  not  wholly  a 
desirable  privilege,  especially  as  the  towns  had  to  pay  their 
representatives  for  their  trouble ;  often  during  the  fourteenth 
century  constituencies  petitioned  to  be  excused  from  sending 
representatives,  or  even  neglected  to  obey  the  royal  writ. 

One  feature  of  this  period  was  the  recognition  of  the  princi- 
ple of  hereditary  succession.     All  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  based 
195.  He-        their  claims  to  the  throne  on  royal  blood  and  election  by 

reditary         ^|^p  AVitan  ;  all  the  Norman  kings  based  theirs 'on  royal 

succession 

to  the  blood  and  the  consent  of  the  baronage,  clergy,  or  people. 

throne  Neither  AVilliam  II.,  nor  Henry  I.,  nor  Stephen,  nor  John, 

could  claim  the  throne  as  nearest  heir  to  his  predecessor ;  but 

from  the  reign  of   Edward  I.,  the  monarch s  were  regularly 

proclaimed  king  as  by  hereditary  right,  with  no  mention  of 

the  consent  of  the  barons,  and  the  reign  of  each  was  held  to 

begin  from  the  moment  of  his  predecessor's  death. 


England  employed  the  period  from  1272  to  1307  in  building 

up   a   definite  constitutional  structure.     Under  Edward  "the 

196.  Sum-     Lawgiver,"  England  acquired  a  body  of  roughly  codified 

nia^ry  laws  ;  improved  her  machinery  for  executing  these  laws ; 

secured    specific  reforms  in  the   matter    of    land    transfers 


FIRST   STKl'S    IN    rAUI.lA.MKMAUV   (;()VKUNMKNT     1S3 

;uul  of  subiiitfudation ;  forced  tin-  climTli  to  suhmit  to  taxa- 
tion in  (•(iinnioii  witli  all  other  hmdholtlcrs ;  after  a  loii;^  series 
of  experiments,  found  a  j)raeticable  basis  for  a  representative 
Parliament  in  a  body  wliieli  combined  democratic  with  aristo- 
cratic elements,  yet  limited  representation  to  those  who  had 
most  at  stake  in  the  government ;  and  thus  provided  a  means 
of  restraining  the  monarch  in  all  questions,  such  as  wars,  involv- 
ing the  expenditure  of  large  sums.  Her  noble  classes  became 
separated  into  peers  (or  hereditary  legislators)  and  gentry  (a 
hereditary  middle-class  aristocracy,  destined  to  be  conservers  of 
liberty  and  orderly  government).  Lastly,  she  reduced  the  num- 
ber of  her  dangerous  neighbors  by  annexing  \Vales,  but  offset 
this  by  making  Scotland  for  a  long  time  hostile  to  herself  and 

friendly  to  France. 

TOPICS 

(1)  How  did  it  liappen  that  the  lords  of  the  marches  continually  Suggestive 
eiicroachetl  on  Welsh  territory  ?  (2)  Was  Edward's  treatment  of  '•"P'*^^ 
Wales  wise  or  unwise,  and  why  ?  (3)  What  inherent  weakuess  in 
the  feudal  theory  does  the  vassalage  of  the  Scottish  to  the  English 
kings  suggest?  (4)  Why  did  Edward  wish  to  hold  the  Welsh  and 
Scottish  castles  during  his  war  with  France?  (5)  What  ancient 
bond  was  there  between  the  natives  of  France  and  those  of  Scot- 
land? (»■>)  Discuss  the  justice  of  Eiiwanl's  cause  at  different  stages 
in  his  quarrel  with  Scotland.  (7)  What  was  meant  by  the  state- 
nu-nt  that  land  owned  by  the  clmrch  was  held  in  "mortmain"  (a 
dead  hand)  ?  (8)  Point  out  the  mistake  in  the  medieval  theory 
of  the  effect  of  foreign  commerce.  (0)  Describe  the  application 
of  the  representative  principle  in  the  shire  moots.  (10)  Show 
tliiit  a  county  court,  or  shire  moot,  was  a  miniature  Parliament. 
(1!)  Contrast  the  concession  about  tioxation  in  the  Confirmatio 
Ciirianini  with  that  in  Magna  Ciiarta. 

(I'J)  The  atatns.  income,  and  functions  of  a  modern  Prince  of    Search 
Wales.      (i:i)  The  Coronation    Stone  and   \U  lecendary   liistory.    ^°P'c« 

(14)  Wa.s  William  Wallace  a  patriot,  or  a  disturber  of  the  peace? 

(15)  Tlie  various  privilegis  and  immunities  included  in  "bene- 
fit of  clergy."  (16)  The  organization  and  functions  of  Convo- 
cation during  this  iH>riod.  (17)  What  is  a  court  of  equity? 
(18)  Why  would  not  the  barons  leave  FIngland  ?  (lU)  A  session 
of  Parliament  in  Edward  I.'s  reign. 


184 


CULMINATION  OF   FEUDALISM 


REFERENCES 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


See  maps,  pp.  142,  170  ;  Gardiner,  Srhuol  Atlas,  map  1.3  ;  Poole, 
Historical  Atlas,  maps  xviii.  xix.  xxv.  xxvi.  Iv.  ;  Mackinder,  Britain 
and  the  British  Isles,  211,  221;  Hughes,  Geograph;/  in  British 
History,  eh.  vili.  ;  Reich,  JVeio  Students^  Atlas,  map  12. 

Bright,  Historij  of  England,  I.  171-196  ;  Gardiner,  Studenfs 
History,  208-224  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  205-227  ;  Green, 
Short  History,  161-193,  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  iii. 
ch.  iv.  ;  Stubbs,  Early  Plantagenets,  chs.  x.  xi.,  —  Select  Charters, 
35-51,  —  Constit2itional  History,  II.  ch.  xv.  ;  Powell  and  Tout, 
bk.  iv.  ch.  i. ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional  History,  63-81 ; 
Brewer,  StiidenVs  Hume,  ch.  ix.  ;  Lingard,  History  of  England, 
II.  ch.  iv. ;  Traill,  Social  England,  1.396-403;  Edwards,  Wales, 
chs.  viii.-xi.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  xv.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland, 
I.  162-211  ;  Jenks,  Edioard  Plantagenet,  chs.  vii.-xiii. ;  Tout, 
Edward  I.  ;  Maxwell,  Robert  the  Bruce  ;  Morris,  Welsh  Wars  of 
Edward  I.  ;  Wakeman  and  Hassall,  Essays  Introdiictory  to  English 
Constitutional  History,  no.  iv.  ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional 
History,  ch.  viii.  ;  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Laic,  1. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  37-50 ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  34,  35  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
no.  28;  Henderson,  Select  Documents,  148-151,  432-437;  Hill, 
Liberty  Documents,  chs.  iii.  iv.  ;  Cheyney,  English  Constitutional 
Documents  (University  of  Pennsylvania  Reprints,  I.  no.  6)  ;  Gee 
and  Hardy,  Dociiments  of  Church  History,  nos.  xx-\yii.-xxxiii. 
See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  242- 
243, — Historical  Sources,  155-157. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  Histoi-y  told  by  English  Poets,  94-97  ; 
Gray,  The  Bard  (a  poem) ;  Henty,  In  Freedom^s  Cause ;  Palgrave, 
The  Merchant  and  the  Friar  ;  Porter,  Scottish  Chiefs ;  Scott,  Castle 
Dangerous, 


CHAPTKK    Xlll. 

MISUOVEKNMENT    UNDKK    TllK    l.Al'EU    ri.ANlAGENETS 
(1307-130y) 

Edward  II.  was  a  young  man  of  weak  cliaracter,  who  de- 
voted liis  time  chiefly  to  huntiug,  feasting,  and  tournaments, 
and  was  not  fond  of  real  warfare.  "While  not  really  197  Mis- 
vicious,  he  was  negligent  of  duty,  indolent,  foolish,  and  m°enTof 
obstinate.  Instead  of  following  up  the  Scottish  war  Edward  II 
vigorously  on  the  death  of  his  father,  in  1307,  he  gave  his 
attention  first  to  arranging  elaborate  funeral  and  coronation 
ceremonies,  and  then  to  placing  liis  iniworthy  favorites  in 
jtositions  of  trust  and  gain.  His  favor  was  chiefly  bestowed 
on  an  ambitious  and  avaricious  foreigner.  Piers  Gaveston, 
whose  arrogance  and  misgovernment  soon  roused  the  barons 
to  resistance.  When  Edward  unpatriotically  ai)pealed  for  aid 
to  the  Pope  and  to  the  king  of  France,  the  barons  were  still 
more  angry.  In  l.'UO  a  body  of  twenty-one  barons,  called  the 
Lords  Ordainers,  was  chosen,  whose  duty  it  was  to  formulate 
ordinances  for  the  reform  of  grave  abuses  in  tlie  government. 
Edward  first  accepted  and  then  annulled  these  ordinances, 
and  a  struggle  followed,  in  which  Gaveston  was  captured  and 
executed  without  pretense  of  legality,  by  the  leaders  of  the 
baronial  party.  The  barons  remained  dictators  of  the  king's 
policy  for  some  years. 

During   these   absorbing   events,    Bruce    was    making   such 
headway  in   Scotland   that  Stirling  was  the  only  stronghold 
left  in  the  hands  of  tlu*  English,     Edward,  at  last  roused      jgg    Loss 
to  action,  invaded  Scotland  in  the  year  1314  with  an    o^  Scotland 
army  nund)ering  100,000  men.     Bruce  prepared  to  dispute  his 

186 


186 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


Stirling  Castle. 


advance  by  taking  up  a  position  on  a  hillock  which  com- 
manded the  roads  to  Stirling  from  the  south,  with  the  right 
flank  of  his  army  protected  by  a  little  brook  called  Bannock- 
burn,  and  the  front  protected  by  a  marsh  and  by  a  series  of 
shallow  pitfalls  each  containing  a  pointed  stake.  Edward 
attacked  this  strong  position  on  June  24,  1314.  At  the  crisis 
of  the  contest,  a  flank  attack  by  Bruce's  cavalry  carried  con- 
fusion into  the  English 
ranks,  and  Edward,  mis- 
taking a  crowd  of  Bruce's 
camp  followers  for  a 
body  of  Scottish  reenf  orce- 
ments,  ordered  a  retreat. 
At  this  moment  Bruce 
attacked  with  his  main 
army,  the  English  archers 
and  cavalry  were  both 
driven  in  hopeless  rout, 
and  Edward,  barely  escap- 
Battle  of  Bannockburn.  ing  capture,  fled,  attended 


THE    LATKIJ    I'LANrAlJKNKTS  187 

by  ;i  few  hundird  moii.  l-Or  sc vtMi  years  UnicL'  iu'li'<l  on  the 
offensive,  harassing  the  north  of  Kii,ti;hin(l  l)y  repeated  incur- 
sions. In  KVJO,  during  a  single  raid  lie  laid  in  aslu-s  eighty- 
fonr  towns  and  villages,  and  three  years  later  the  English 
were  driven  to  make  a  truce  for  thirteen  years,  thus  conceding 
to  Hruce  the  mastery  of  Scotland. 

Edward's  loss  of  prestige  after  I>annockburn  left  his  cousin 
the  Earl  of  Lancaster,  now  leader  of  the  baronial  i)arty  and 
commander  in  chief  of  the  army,  virtually  ruler  of  Eng-        jgg   ^g. 

land.     Edward,  meanwhile,  gave  his  attention  to  a  new         bellions 

against  Ed- 
favorite.   Hugh   Despenscr;  and  his  lavish  gifts  to  the         ward  II. 

relatives  of  this  favorite  (two  of  whom  received  sixty-  (1321-1326) 
three  English  manors)  led  to  a  fresh  revolt  headed  by  Lancaster 
and  certain  other  lords  of  the  Welsh  Marches.  At  the  battle 
of  Horoughbridge  (1822)  the  rebels  were  defeated,  and  Lan- 
caster and  thirty  of  his  associates  were  afterward  executed ; 
but  one  of  the  leaders,  Roger  Mortimer,  escajjcd  from  prison 
and  took  refuge  in  France. 

For  a  time  Edward  was  free  to  conduct  the  government  as 
he  pleased;  but  soon  his  <|ueen,  Isabella  of  France,  while  ab- 
sent in  I'aris,  fell  under  the  inflnencc  of  ^Mortimer  and  was  per- 
suaded to  aid  him  in  overthrowing  Edward,  in  .September, 
I'A'Ji'i,  Isabella  and  Mortimer  landed  in  8urt'olk,  where  they 
were  joined  by  the  king's  brothers,  his  cousin  (the  new  Earl  of 
Lancaster),  the  Archbisho[(  of  Canterbury,  and  indeed  all  the 
leading  men  of  the  nation.  Edward  fled  into  Wales,  hoping  to 
liiid  a  refnge  in  Ireland,  but  was  captured  and  imprisom-d. 

At  a  Parliament  called    in   January,   1827,   the  Bishop  of 

Hereford  presented  charges,  alleging  (1)  that  the  king  was 

too  indolent  or  incompetent  to  judge  between  right  and     200    Depo- 

wrong,  (2)  that  he  had  listened  to  evil  counsel,  (8)  that         sition  of 

'^  Edward  II. 

he   had   lost  Scotland   through   his  own   fault,  (4)  that  iJan  7. 

he  had  injnred  the  chnreh,  and  (5)  tlmt  he  had  broken  1327; 

his  coronatiiiii  oath  to  '-do  justice  to  all."     The  wretched  king 


188  .  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALILM 

admitted  the  truth  of  these  charges  and  abdicated  his  throne ; 
whereupon  Parliament  renounced  all  allegiance  to  him  and 
declared  his  son  Edward  to  be  king  of  England. 

The  reign  of  Edward  III.  extended  over  exactly  lift}'  years. 

At  his  accession  in  1327  he  was  but  fourteen  years  old,  and 

201    P    ■  d  therefore  the  government  was  for  a  short   time   in  the 

of  Regency    hands   of   a  Council   of   Regency.     This  was  of  course 

( 1327-1330) 

'  dominated  by  the  queen  and  Mortimer,  but  the  latter, 

who  was  created  Earl  of  March,  rapidly  made  himself  hated 
by  his  haughty  bearing  and  by  his  violence  toward  those 
who  remained  faithful  to  Edward  II.  The  deposed  king  was 
soon  inurdered,  probably  by  Mortimer's  orders. 

In  1330  Edward  III.,  now  married  and  a  father,  determined  to 
take  the  government  into  his  own  hands.  With  the  support 
of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster,  he  suddenly  caused  the  arrest  of 
Mortimer ;  brought  him  to  trial  on  the  charge  of  overawing 
Parliament  by  force,  of  usurping  royal  castles  and  lands, 
and  of  embezzling  public  moneys ;  and  caused  him  to  be 
hanged,  drawn,  and  quartered  at  Tyburn.  At  the  same  time, 
he  caused  the  unworthy  Isabella  to  go  into  permanent  retire- 
ment in  one  of  the  royal  castles.  » 

While  England  was  still  suffering  from  the  misgovernment 
of  Isabella  and  Mortimer,  the  Scots  broke  the  truce  of  1323, 
202.  Re-       crossed  the  border,  and  forced  the  regents  to  recognize 
Scott"  h         Bruce  as   independent   sovereign  of   Scotland   in   1328. 
wars  (1328)   Within  a  year  Bruce  died,  leaving  as  heir  a  son  David, 
five  years  old ;  but  John  Baliol's  son  Edward  seized  the  throne 
(1332)  and  was  supported  by  Edward  III.     The  Scots  took  up 
the  cause  of  David  Bruce,  but  were  totally  defeated  at  Halidon 
Hill  in  1333.     Young  Bruce  sought  a  refuge  in  France,  and 
Baliol,  as  king  of  Scotland,  ceded  to  Edward  III.  all  the  terri- 
tory south  of  the  Forth,  and  did  homage  for  the  rest.     During 
more  than  twenty  years   Baliol    held  his   throne  only  when 
he  was  supported  by  an  English  army  in  Scotland,  and  in 


TIIK    LATER    I'l-AN  lAliENETS 


189 


LSA;  (the  y»Mr  iifttM-  lialiol's  death)  PMwaid  laid  the  luuiKhi- 
tions  of  a  thirty  years"  peace  with  Scotland  l)y  ackiiowh'dging 
David  Hnue  as  kiuj;,  in  letnrn  tor  the  payment  of  100,000 
marks  and  the  cession  of  the  town  of  Herwick  on  Tweed. 

Fonr  years  after  Halidon   Hill  there  broke  ont  a  great  war 
between    France   and    England  which,  continuing  with    short 
intervals  from  1387  to  1453,  is  popularly  known  as  the   203  Causes 
Hundred  Years'  War.     It  was  i)rovoked  by  Philip  VI.  of    of  the  Hun- 
France  (p.  221),  who  coveted  Edward's  French  province   ^ar  aa"-^- 
of  Guienne,  and,  while  plotting  to  gain  possession  of  it,  1*^3) 

sought  to  weaken  his  rival  by  jtromoting  the  Scottish  struggle 
for   independence,  abetting  the  jjiracies  of   Frenchmen  upon 
the  English    merchant  vessels  in  the    Channel,  and    destroy- 
ing England's  wool  trade  with  his  vassals,  the  Flemings. 
rr.u  r,      ^^  .  ,.  Student's 

ine    war,    says   Gardnier,    "  was    in    reality    waged    to         History, 

discover  by  an  appeal    to  arms  whether    the  whole    of  ''^'^ 

Aquitaine  was  to  be  incorporated  with    France  and  whether 
Scotland  was  to  be  incorporated  with  England." 

Unfortunately  for  England's  future  peace,  Edward,  in  order 
to  gain  the  alliance  of  Flanders,  put  forward  a  claim  to  the 
crown  of  France.  His  argument  in  support  of  this  claim 
may  be  paraphra.sed   as  follows:     "When   King  Charles   IV. 


KIXUS  OF  FKANTK 


PHILIP  IV. 


LOUIS  X.        PHILIP  V.  CHARLES  IV. 

1314-1310  131.,1T.-J  I  .-.-.  1  «, 


Jranne     Jt-aiiiK' 


Murgu 


ret      m« 


PHJLIP  III. 


1^^ul»'lla  =  E0WAR0  II. 


Cliarlea 


PHILIP  VI. 


}HN 


Cburles      Philip        Louis  Piilllp 

Rki.\tiov  ok  Enw\Ki>  III    to  tuk  Fkkv<h  SicrKssioN. 

(Note  that  the  crown  miirht  have  liecn  claiiiied  for  seviTal  Fr»'iu'Ii  pri riot's  on 
proumls  .strotiKrr  tluiii  tliose  of  Edward.) 

walker's    KHO.    H19T.  —  12 


190 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


Sfa  160  150 I —'fi 


France  in  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
Showing  English  territory  in  1337 ;  also  in  1360  and  in  1429. 

of  France  died,  in  1328,  I,  as  the  son  of  his  sister  Isabella, 
was  his  nearest  male  relative,  and  therefore  rightful  king  of 
France,  as  I  asserted  at  the  time."  This  claim  was  now  wholly 
untenable,  because  the  peers  of  France  had  decided  in  favor  of 
Philip's  claim  to  the  throne  in  1328,  and  Edward  had  subse- 
quently done  homage  to  Philip  for  his  French  tief  of  Guienne. 


TilE    LAlKi;    ri.ANTAliKNKTS  lit] 

It  nevertheless  served  its  purpose  bv  eiiabliuj:;  Edward's 
Flemisli  allies  to  claim  that  in  aiding  him  tliey  were  serving 
"their  overlord  the  King  of  Franou";  but  it  also  led  later 
English  kings  to  expend  blood  aiul  treasure  in  trying'  tn  make 
good  Edward's  empty  boast. 

In  1338  Edward  assembled  a  strong  army,  invaded  France 
by  way  of  the  Low  Countries  (the  Netherlands),  and  marched 
here  and  there  through  the  north  of  France,  ravaging  the     204.  First 
country  and  laying  siege  to  cities,  but  failing  to  lure  the    "^^^sion  of 
enemy  into  a  decisive  contest.     The  taxation  required  to  (1338) 

sui)i)ort  this  futile  war  made  it  very  unpopular,  but  the  opposi- 
tion grew  less  aftcn-  a  notable  naval  victory  at  Sluys  in  Flan- 
ders, where,  in  June,  1340,  a  French  fleet  of  190  ships  was 
wholly  destroyed  by  a  slightly  larger  English  fleet.  This  vic- 
tory made  England  mistress  of  the  Channel  for  a  third  of  a 
century,  and  made  it  easy  to  carry  men  and  equipment  across 
for  campaigns  in  France. 

Edward  returned  to  the  invasion  of  France  in  1341,  oidy  to 
repeat  his  ]trevious  futile  operations,  and  to  be  compelled  by 
lack  of  money  and  of  success  to  sign  another  armisti(t\      205.  Cam- 
Parliament,    however,    granted   him    a   fresh   supi)ly   of       lai^and 
money  in  return  for  some  reforms  in  government.     Soon  1346 

a  quarrel  over  the  succession  to  the  duchy  of  Hrittany  (in 
which  Philii»  siijjported  the  principle  of  female  succession  and 
Ell  ward  maintained  that  females  could  not  transmit  the  right 
of  succession  to  the  crown  I)  led  to  a  third  invasion  of  France, 
and  to  the  brilliant  and  celebrated  victory  of  Crecy,  August 
2«,  1346. 

Having  landed   near   Cape   La   Hogue   with   a  snudl   army, 

?]dward  ravaged  the  nortli  of  France,  an<l   tinally  tlireatened 

the  French  caiiital;   but  the  king  of   Fraini' intercepted    206.  Battle 

his  march  near  St.  Denis,  and  drove  him   northward  to         ?^  ^^^7 

,   ,  ,  .  (Aug  26. 

(  recy,   which   lay   in  his  own    princi])ality  of    Ponthieu.  1346 > 

Then,   scorning  to   retreat   on   his  own    soil,    he  prepared    to 


192 


CULMINATION   UF   FEUDALISM 


Battle  of  Crecy. 
Success   went    to 


fight  the  vastly  larger  army  of  Philip.  The  English  were 
po'sted  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  in  three  masses,  each  consist- 
ing of  men  at  arms  and  archers,  the  latter  arranged  like 
the  pieces  on  a  checkerboard  so  that 
each  man  had  free  play  for  his  weapon. 
The  French  advanced  in  successive 
lines,  the  first  containing  15,000  mer- 
cenary crossbowiuen  from  Genoa,  in 
Italy,  and  the  others  composed  almost 
wholly  of  mounted  knights  in  heavy 
armor, 
the  more  intelligent  combatants :  the 
mounted  knights  were  unwieldy,  and  too  thickly  massed,  the 
English  were  light-armed,  and  in  open  order ;  the  Genoese  had 
allowed  their  bowstrings  to  be  wetted  by  recent  rains,  while 
the  English  kept  theirs  dry  under  their  coats;  the  French 
commanders  lost  their  heads;  the  English  were  cool  and  self- 
contained.  "When  the  Genoese  .  .  .  approached  the 
Froissart's  .  n  •    i 

Chronicles,     English,  they  set  up  a  loud  shout  in  order  to  frighten 

bk.  I.  ch.  55.  ^j-^gjjj .  |3^^^  ^j-^gy  remained  quite  still,  and  did  not  seem 
to  attend  to  it.  They  then  set  up  a  second  shout,  and  ad- 
vanced a  little  forward ;  but  the  English  never  moved.  They 
hooted  a  third  time,  advancing  with  their  crossbows  presented, 
and  began  to  shoot.  The  English  archers  then  advanced  one 
step  forward,  and  shot  their  arrows  with  such  force  and  quick- 
ness that  it  seemed  as  if  it  snowed."  As  corps  after  corps  of 
the  French  rode  up,  they  were  hurled  against  the  English  with 
less  and  less  hope  of  success.  At  nightfall  the  French  with- 
drew, leaving  thousands  of  dead  upon  the  field,  including  1552 
counts,  barons,  and  knights,  or  half  of  the  entire  nobility  of 
France. 

The   battle  of   Crecy  is  historically  significant   because  it 

207.  The       showed  that  the  armor-encased  mounted  knight,  fighting 
fruits  of  .  T       •       1    J. 

Crecy  with  striking  and   thrusting  weapons,  was  destinea  to 


THE    LATER    PLANTAlJENKTS 


193 


give  way  to  the  more  mobile  foot  soldier,  armed  with  mis- 
sile weapons.  In  spite  of  its  brilliancy,  the  victory  was  on 
the  whole  disastrons  to  the  Kntjlish,  for  its  snccess  tempted 
them  to  further  aggressions,  while  it  brought  the  war  no 
nearer  to  a  close.     Its  immediate  result  was  that  Edward  was 

able   to  move  northward  

and  lay  siege  to  Calais, 
the  possession  of  which 
he  coveted  as  an  open 
door  into  France,  and  as 
a  means  of  checking  the 
French  pirates  of  the 
Channel.  Philip  induced 
David  Bruce  to  invade 
England  in  order  to  draw 
Edward's  forces  back  from 
the  Continent,  but  at  the 
battle  of  Nevilles  Cross 
(1346)  the  Scots  were  re- 
pulsed and  ]iruce  was  cap- 
tured. Calais  was  taken 
within  a  year,  and  was 
immediately  populated 
with  thousands  of  emigrants,  chiefly  English  merchants  and 
mariners ;  while  such  of  its  citizens  as  remained  loyal  to  France 
were  t'xi)elled. 

After  a  lull  in  hostilities,  during  which  the   Black   Death 
(§  227 j  crippled  the  fighting  power  of  England,  the  war  was 
renewed  in  l.Sof),  when  Edward's  son,  the  "  Black  Prince,"   208  Second 
sought  to  win  glory  and  wealth  by  invading  southern   *^^^  °^  **** 
France.     Marching  through  Languedoc  and  Toulouse,  he   (1355  1360. 
penetrated  clear  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  won   no  per- 
manent advantage.      The  next   year  he   marched    northward 
toward  the  Loire,  and   the  experience  dI  Cn^y  was  repeated 


Three  Stages  in  the  Evoi.i  i  lu.v  ok 
Mkdia:val  Wkapoxs. 

Crosstlow,  longbow,  bombard  with  stone 
biills.  From  a  MS.  Le  C/ironi'/ue  tie 
Saint  Denis,  fourteenth  oenturj'. 


194  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

at  Poitiers  on  September  19,  1356.  Fourteen  Frencli  counts 
and  nineteen  hundred  French  knights  were  slain  in  this  battle  ; 
more  important  still,  the  king  of  France  and  his  youngest  son 
were  taken  prisoners.  For  the  next  four  years  the  French 
suffered  greatly  from  the  ravages  of  the  English  forces,  which 
ranged  throughout  the  land  at  will,  while  the  French,  shutting 
themselves  up  within  walled  towns,  made  no  resistance  to  their 
progress. 

Since  Bruce  was  acknowledged  by  Edward  as  king  of  Scot- 
land in  1357,  one  chief  ground  for  the  war  was  already  removed. 

„  France  had  suffered  untold  miseries,  and  was  so  poor  as 

209.  Peace  '  .  ^ 

of  Bretigny    to  furnish  no  plunder.    "Nothing  presented  itself  to      .  . 
(1360)  [the]  eyes  but  a  fearful   solitude,  an  extreme  poverty, 

^t''dtrv''  ^^^^  uncultivated,  houses  in  ruins."  Finally  peace  was 
History,  signed  at  Bretigny,  in  May,  1360.  Edward  abandoned  his 
claim  to  the  throne  of  France,  and  in  return  received  free 
from  vassalage  the  sovereignty  of  all  Aquitaine,  and  of  the 
districts  around  Calais  and  Ponthieu ;  for  his  personal  ransom 
the  king  of  France  was  to  pay  within  six  years  the  enormous 
sum  of  3,000,000  pieces  of  gold,  equivalent  in  purchasii^g  power 
to  at  least  $40,000,000  now.  By  this  apparently  dazzling  suc- 
cess, Edward  really  gained  no  advantage;  for  the  ceded  dis- 
tricts contained  only  some  millions  of  disloyal  subjects,  the 
ransom  was  never  paid,  and  in  Charles  V.,  the  successor  of  the 
imprisoned  king,  Edward  acquired  a  crafty  and  unscrupulous 
enemy.  The  war  was  renewed  after  a  few  years,  and  when 
the  next  truce  was  made  (1375),  the  English  had  lost  all  their 
territory  in  France  except  a  few  coast  cities. 

During  the  last  years  of  Edward  III.'s  reign  England  was 
sadly  misgoverned.      Edward  was  ill  and  in  his  dotage,  the 

210.  Close     Black  Prince  was  dying  of  fever,  and  the  government 
of  the  reign   ^vas  of  necessity  left  to  John  of  Gaunt,  now  Duke  of 

Lancaster,  and  to  certain  favorites  of  the  king.  John,  who 
was  not  fit  for  so  important  a  task,  became  very  unpopular: 


TlIK    LATKK    I'LAN'PACiENETS  195 

and  in  lo76  the  so-called  Good  rurlianient  endeavored  to 
remedy  matters  by  banishing  obnoxious  favorites  of  the  king 
and  by  impeaching  certain  officers  of  the  government  who 
had  embezzled  public  money  and  accepted  bribes.  Ten  ])t'rsons 
were  nominated  by  the  Parliament  as  an  advisor}-  council, 
not  so  much  to  gain  immediate  reform  as  to  secure  the  suc- 
cession on  Edward's  eleath  to  the  little  Prince  Kichard  (sou 
of  the  Black  Princej,  in  whom  the  hopes  of  the  nation  were 
centered. 

Richard  II.  became  king  in  1377  at  eleven  years  of  age,  and 
the  years  of  his  minority  were  made  turbulent  by  the  struggle 
between  his  father's  friends  and  those  of  John  of  Gaunt,   211.  Early 

a  struggle  in  which    the   clergy   under  Wyelif  (§  222)         years  of 
1  mi        T^  1  •      1      1  •  Richard 

bore    a   prominent   part.     The    French    seized   this   op-      n  s  reign 

portunity  to   renew  the  Hundred  Years'  War,  and    the  (1377  1396 
enormous  expenditure  of  money  thus  entailed  led  to  a  rebel- 
lion  of  the  lower  classes   in   England,  under   the  leadership 
of  Wat  Tyler,  in  1381  (§  230).     In  1385  Kichard  undertook 
the  government,  but  he  unwisely  chose  fur  his  advisers  the 
Earl  of  Suffolk,  who  was  grasping,  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford, 
who  was  frivolous.     Their  misgovernment  led  to  a  conspiracy 
of  five  great  barons,  later  called  Lords  Appellant,  —  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester  and  the  earls  of  Arundel,  Warwick,  Nottingham, 
and  Derby  (son  of  John  of  (Jaunt),  — who  put  so  much  pres- 
sure upon  the  king  that  he  ruled  acceptal)ly  for  several  years. 
In  1396  Richard  freed  his  hands  for  a  struggle  at  home  by 
securing  a  twenty-eight  years'  truce   with  France.     He  then 
broke  the  strength  of    the  opi)osition   by   winning  over      212    Tyr- 
Derby  and   Nottingham,  ami   entered   upon   a  course  of    ^  ph^'t.H^i 
tyranny.      He  secured   his   personal  safety  by  keeping  a   (1396  1399> 
bodyguard;    revenged  himself  upon  the  othcM*  three  obnoxious 
Lords  Appellant    by  imprisoning  one,  executing  another,  and 
banishing  tlir   third;    and    induced  a  sub.servient   I'arliament 
to  vote  him  a  large  annual  tax  for  life,  and  to  resign  its  jtower 


196 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


into  the   hands  of   a   committee  of  the   king's  friends.      To 

obtain  additional  sums  of  money  he  levied  forced  loans  and 

still    worse   extortions  ;     and    finally,    with   insane   folly,    he 

banished  Nottingham    and   Derby,    whom    he   had   not   long 

before  made  dukes  of  Norfolk  and  of  Hereford  respectively. 

The  death  of  John  of  Gaunt,  in  1399,  left  his  son,  Henry 

of  Lancaster  (Earl  of  Devby  and  Duke  of  Hereford),  heir  to 

the  possessions   of  the   duchy   of   Lancaster.      Richard 

Lancas-         now  confiscated  the  Lancastrian  estates,  thus  giving  his 

trian  revolt  j,jyj^j  Henry  an  excuse  for  invading  England  to   assert 

his  rights.     Fortunately  for  Henry,  serious  rebellions  broke  out 

in  Ireland,  which  required  Richard's  presence  there.     Henry 


Alnwick  Castle. 

Built  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  as  a  barrier  to  the  Scots.     Home  of 
the  Percys,  130&-1682. 

promptly  crossed  to  England  and  rallied  to  his  support  all 
the  followers  of  his  father,  together  with  the  Percys  of 
Northumberland  and  other  barons  in  the  north  of  England 
who  were  hostile  to  Richard.  By  proclaiming  everywhere 
that  he  came  merely  to  redress  the  wrongs  of  the  nation,  he 
even  won  the  sup])ort  of  the  Duke  of  York,  regent  in  Richard's 
absence.  The  king  returned  to  find  himself  helpless  in  the 
hands  of  the  man  he  had  wronged,  and  was  easily  frightened 
into    signing    a   paper    absolving    his    subjects    from    fealty, 


Tin;    LA  IKK    I'LANTAGENETS  107 

luiiiiacre,  and  allegiance,  and  declaring  himself  worthy  to  be 

deposed. 

The  I'arliament  which  met  on  the  next  day  (September  1^0, 

I'.VM)  declared  that  llichard  had  forfeited  his  crown  through 

violation  of  his  coronation  oath  and  misgovernment,  antl    „, .    „ 

'  214.   Depo- 

set  forth  thirty-three  distinct  reasons  why  he  shoukl  be         sition  of 

deposed.  The  must  notable  were  Richard's  own  asser- 
tions  that  '"the  laws  were  in  his  own  mouth  .  .  .  and  that 
he  alone  could  change  and  frame  the  laws  of  the  kingdom  "  ; 
and  that  "  the  life  of  every  liegeman,  tenements,  goods,  and 
chattels,  lay  at  his  royal  will  without  sentence  of  forfeiture." 
Richard  having  been  formally  deposed  by  vote  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, Henry  of  Lancaster  claimed  the  crown  of  England,  as 
being  "  descended  by  right  line  of  the  blood  "  from  Henry  III., 
and  as  the  preserver  of  the  realm  which  was  "in  point  to  be 
undone  for  default  of  governance  and  undoing  of  the  good 
laws."'  Parliament  acquiesced  in  this  claim,  and  the  new  king 
was  immediately  crowned  as  Ilciirv  IV.  by  the  archliishops  of 
Canterbury  and  York,  binding  himself  by  oath  to  ''act  by 
common  advice,  counsel  and  consent,''  and  to  "  do  right  by  all 
people." 

During  the  fourteenth  century.  Parliament  steadily  gained 
in  importance.     (1)    Edward  IL,  in  1.322,  ratified  a  declaration 
of  Parlianjent  that  "matters  to  be  established  for  the      215    Par- 
estate  of  our  lord  the  king  and  of  his  heirs,  and  for  the    liame°tary 
"  '  progress 

estate  of  the  realm  and  of  the  peui)le,  shall  be  treated,   (1300-1400 

accorded,  and  established  in  Parliament  by  our  lord  the  king, 
and  by  consent  of  the  prelates,  earls,  ami  l)ai(Uis.  luiil  coni- 
monalty  of  the  realm,  as  hath  been  hitherto  accustomed." 
Tliis  action  made  it  illegal  to  enact  statutes  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  commons.  (2)  Hetween  l."!.S2  and  l.'ill  arose  the 
custom  of  dividiut,'  I'arliament  into  two  houses,  with  the  lords 
and  prelates  sitting  in  one  house  and  the  knights,  citizens,  and 
burges.ses  in  the  other;    and  after  l.'ill    Parliament  remained 


198  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

permanently  a  legislature  of  two  houses.  (3)  During  the  next 
half  century,  the  lower  clergy,  who  preferred  to  act  through 
Convocation,  gradually  ceased  to  obey  the  summons  to  Par- 
liament, so  that  the  bishops  and  archbishops  and  some  mitred 
abbots  ^  remained  the  only  representatives  of  the  clergy  in  Par- 
liament after  1400.  (4)  The  Good  Parliament  in  1376  estab- 
lished the  right  to  impeach  unsuitable  ministers  of  the  crown. 
(5)  By  the  Statute  of  Provisors  (1351)  Parliament  rescued  the 
benefices  of  the  English  Church  from  the  control  of  foreigners  ; 
and  by  the  Statute  of  Praemunire  (1353)  it  limited  appeals  to 
foreign  courts,  and  excluded  from  England  the  legates  of  the 
Pope  except  when  authorized  by  the  monarch  to  exercise  their 
functions  there.  (6)  Finally,  in  deposing  Richard  II.,  Parlia- 
ment showed  that  there  was  an  authority  above  even  that  of 
the  monarch  —  namely,  that  of  the  sovereign  people. 

During  this  century,  too,  advances  were  made  in  tlie  methods 

of   taxation.      The  monarchs  had  long   had  a  right   to   levy 

216.  Finan-  "tallages"    (special    taxes    upon    towns    in    the    royal 

ciai  prog-      demesne) :    but  as   money   was   now   provided   by   Par- 
ress  ^  '  •'  ^  "^ 

(1300-1400)  liament,  the    right  was   given  up   in   1340.     With   the 

growth   of   the   wool  trade  the  monarch  was  forced  to  give 

up  the   practice  of   levying    duties   on  wool   (1362) ;    but  he 

gained  the  right  to  levy  other  customs  duties.     After   1373, 

Parliament  regularly  granted  to  every  monarch   in  turn  the 

right  to  levy  "tannage  and  poundage"  duties  on  every  tun  of 

wine  and  pound  of  goods  imported  or  exported,  the  theory 

being   that   this    money  would   be    spent   on    the  defense    of 

the   realm.      Another   new   source   of   revenue   was   the    poll 

tax  on   all   citizens,   but  this   seemed   so  unjust   that  it  was 

very  unpopular. 


1  "  Mitred  "  abbots  were  a  class  which  during  the  rivalry  between  the 
monastic  and  secular  clergy  had  assumed  the  right  to  wear  mitres,  as  being 
on  an  equal  rank  with  bishops,  and  for  the  same  reason  claimed  to  be  peers 
of  the  realm. 


riiK  i.AiKK  i'i..\M.\(;i:NKrs 


199 


The  period  frf)m  l.'^O"  to  \'AW  saw  the  failure  of  Kilwanl  I.'s 
scheme  of  a  unified  Britain,  Ix^causeof  mismanaf^eineiit  in      217    Sum 
the  Scottisli  wars;  hut  the  lesson  tau£?htat  Hannockhuni —  mary 

that  skilled  aiehers  eould  put  to  rout  the  hitherto  invincible 
mounted  knii,'ht  —  was  put  to  effective  use 
in  the  long  struggle  with  France  that  began 
in  1337.  Profitless  as  were  Crecy  and 
I'oitiers,  they  proved  how  superior  was  the 
free-spirited  English  yeoman  to  the  arrogant 
aristocracy  and  the  servile  peasantry  of 
France.  At  home,  two  unworthy  monarchs 
were  deposed  on  the  authority  of  Parlia- 
ment, which  was  now  roughly  representative 
of  the  nation,  and  fixed  in  form.  The  po|)u- 
lar  branch  of  Parliament,  however,  had  not 
yet  learned  its  strength,  but  still  relied  upon 
the  leadership  and  support  of  the  magnates 
of  the  upper  house.  At  the  same  time,  cer- 
tain economic,  social,  and  religious  changes 
(desciibed  in  the  next  chapter)  were  rais-  L()n<:h<>wma.\. 
ing  the  masses  of  the  people  to  a  higher  iniu- of  Ht-nry  V. 
level,  and  thus  making  possible  a  real  democracy  in  England. 


TOPICS 

(1)  Compare  the  various  attempts  tlius  far  made  by  the  barons  Su^^estive 
to  control  the  iiionarch  tliroiigli  a  coiiuiiittee  uf  their  number.  *°P'" 
(2)  Compare  Edwanl  II. '.s  ^'ifLs  of  manors  to  his  favorites  witli 
those  (if  William  I.  (3)  ClaRsify  the  accusation.s  against  the  <le- 
l)osed  monarchs  (teclniicahlies,  eciuity.  expediency,  etc.).  (4)  Wliy 
wiis  a  period  of  regency  in  F^n^dand  advantageous  to  the  Scot.s  and 
the  French  ?  (5)  Kstimate  the  importance  of  Berwick  to  Kngland 
and  to  Scotland  respectively.  (<{)  Wliy  siiould  Kdward  1 1  I.'s  ab- 
surd claim  to  be  king  of  France  make  the  Flemings  more  williii'i  to 
join  him  again.st  riiilip?  (7)  What  inference  repardini;  the  sin- 
cerity of  Edward  r,"d  of  I'hilipdo  you  draw  from  the  resumption  of 
hostilities  in  \.'.i>'>?     (M)    Who  would  have  succeeded   Kiohard  II., 


200 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


Search 
topics 


had  not  the  Lancastrian  revohition  succeeded  ?  (9)  Wcie  Richard's 
statements  quoted  in  §  214  proofs  of  radical  and  irrenuidiable  evils 
in  his  govermnent  ?  (10)  From  what  sources  did  Richard  derive 
his  absolutist  sentiments?  (11)  Compare  the  offenses,  and  the 
treatment,  of  Edward  II.  and  Richard  II. 

(12)  A  detailed  study  of  Edward's  claim  to  the  throne  of  France. 

(18)  The  battle  of  Sluys,  as  illustrating  naval  tactics  now  obso- 
lete. (1-1)  The  share  of  the  Black  Prince  in  the  battle  of  Cr^cy. 
(15)  Cannon  at  Cr6cy.  (16)  The  experiences  of  a  knight  at 
Poitiers.     (17)  A  session  of  Parliament.     (18)  A  Scottish  army. 

(19)  British  archers.  (20)  Later  instances  of  the  de]iosition  of 
English  sovereigns.  (21 )  Captivity  of  the  king  of  France.  (22)  Cap- 
tivity of  David  Bruce.     (23)  Ireland  from  1200  to  1400. 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  142,  170,  190  ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  maps  14, 
15;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  maps  xxv.  xxvi.  Ivi. ;  Reich,  JVew 
Students''  Atlas,  maps  12,  13,  14. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  I.  198-254  ;  Gardiner,  StHdent''s 
History,  224-240,  251-260,  278-288  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History, 
228-294  ;  Green,  Short  History,  207-235,  260-264,  —  History  of  the 
English  People,  bk.  iv.  chs.  i.  ii.  iv.  ;  Stubbs,  Early  Plantagenets, 
ch.  xii.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England,  bk.  iv.  chs.  ii.-iv.  ; 
Brewer,  Studenfs  Hume,  chs.  ix.  x.  ;  Lingard,  History  of  England, 

II.  chs.  v.-vii.,  III.  ch.  i.  ;  Longman,  Life  and  Times  of  Edtcard 

III.  ;  Warburton,  Edward  III.  ;  Creighton,  The  Black  Prince  ; 
Pearson,  English  History  in  the  Fourteenth  Century,  chs.  iii.-xii.  ; 
Edwards,  Wales,  chs.  xii.-xiv.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xvi.  xvii.  ; 
Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  I.  214-284  ;  Oman,  Art  of  War  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  ch.  vi.  ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional  History, 
ch.  viii. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  51-08,  71-88 ; 
Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  38,  39  ;  Kendall,  Source- 
Book,  nos.  29-31  ;  Henderson,  Select  Documents,  15V-16S  ;  A.shley, 
Edward  III.  and  his  Wars  ;  Frazer,  English  History  from  Original 
Sources,  pt.  i.,  pt.  ii.  nos.  1-31,  85-114;  Smith,  The  Troublous 
Days  of  liichard  II.  ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  His- 
tory, xxxiv.-xli.  See  New  England  Histoiy  Teachers'  Association, 
Syllabus,  243,  —  Historical  Sources,  158. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  98- 
156 ;  Henty,  St.  George  for  England  ;  Marlowe,  Edward  II. 
(a  drama) ;  Shakespeare,  King  Eichard  II.  ;  bTonge,  Lances  of 
Lymmod. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 


SOCIAL   AND    ECONOMIC   TKUGUKSS    (12.')0-14(:K)) 

The  period  liom  1250  to  1400  was  marked  by  a  notable 
advance  in  intelligence  throughout  England,  which  showed 
itself  ill  an  increasing  demand  for  education  among  the  21 8. 

well-to-do,  in  revolts  of  the  lower  classes  against  their      Growth  of 
conditions,  and  in  a  sjjirit  of  inquiry  in  religion.     This  ties 

awakening   led   to  a    lapid    growtli   of   the  universities.     He- 


MKRTON    roM.KGK.    THE    F'lRST   OK    lliK    OXl ''KL>    I    OILMilS. 

FoumlctJ  by  Walter  dc  Mertoii,  1204. 

tween  TJCO  and  1275,  Walter  de  :M.'rton  and  Jolni  Baliol 
(father  of  King  John  Baliol)  founded  the  earliest  "colleges" 
at  O.Kfonl.  each  with  its  scjiarate  buildings,  sejiarate  board  of 
government,  and  rich  enilowments,  from  whifh  wert^  supported 
a  teaching  staff,  "fellows"  fposfc-graduate  students),  and 
"  .scholars."  a  picked  bwly  of  undergraduates.  The  new  system 
of  colleges  rapidly  displaced  thf  older  haphazard  system;  and 

201 


202  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

by  the  year  1400  Oxford  embraced  nine  and  Cambridge  six 
colleges,  each  group  being  organized  into  a  university. 

The  course  of  study  in  these  institutions  naturally  expressed 
the  needs  and  ideals  of  churchmen,  either  as  priests  or  as  civil 
319.  Mediae-  administrators.  Separate  institutions  were  organized 
val  studies  for  the  study  of  arts,  of  law,  and  of  theology.  In  the 
last  two  the  study  was  distinctly  technical ;  in  the  hrst  there 
was  the  quadrivium,,  an  introductory  course  in  geometry, 
arithmetic,  music,  and  astronomy ;  and  the  triviimi,  an  ad- 
vanced course  in  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  term  "  grammar  "  means  Latin  grammar 
(Greek  being  at  this  time  practically  unknown  in  England) ; 
that  the  term  "  geometry  "  then  meant  little  more  than  the  ele- 
ments of  geographical  mensuration ;  that  in  arithmetic  the 
study  of  compound  proportion  and  the  decimal  system  of  nota- 
tion were  not  in  common  use  ;  and  that  the  entire  astronomical 
theory  of  the  time  was  based  on  a  fundamental  error,  the 
assumption  that  the  earth  is  the  stationary  center  of  the 
planets,  sun,  and  all  stars. 

Here  and  there  a  student  of  unusual  independence,  ventured 

beyond  the  narrow  bounds  then  set,  and  won  immediate  perse- 

220.  Friar    cution  but  future  renown  by  investigating  the  mysteries 

Soger  ^£  natural  science.     Such  a  man  was  Roger  Bacon  (1214- 

Bacon  '^  ^ 

(1214-1294)  1294),  a  Franciscan  friar,  who  in  his  zeal  for  knowledge 
mastered  not  only  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages,  but 
also  the  Arabic ;  who  studied  not  only  the  mental  and  physical 
philosophy  and  scientific  explorations  of  Aristotle,  but  also  the 
scientific  discoveries  of  Oriental  investigators.  He  invented 
and  applied  magnifying  lenses,  discovered  anew  the  properties 
of  gunpowder  (already  known  to  the  Chinese),  and  made  great 
advances  in  mathematics  and  its  application  to  astronomy. 
But  the  spirit  of  the  age  was  against  him,  and  he  lived,  as  he 
himself  said,  "unheard,  forgotten,  buried." 

By  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  friars,  like  the 


SOflAL   AM)   ECONOMir    1'K0GRP:SS    O250-14U0)        lOli 

monks,  liatl  in  a  larsje  degree  lost  their  purity  *>f  cliaracter  and 

l)econie  corrnpted   tlirongh   the  temptations  peculiar  to  their 

conditions — their  roving  life  and  their  power  of  l)hiy-     221    Reac- 

iui,'  upon  tlie  superstition  of  the  families  to  Avliicli  their   tionagainst 

'      ^  ^  the  fnars 

religious  mission  gave  them  admittance.     Yet  the  ]nil)-  (1350-1400 

lie  conscience  })roved  trustworthy,  even  when  its  professed 
teachers  failed  in  their  duty ;  and  in  such  woriv  as  The  Vision 
of  Piers  the  Ploivman,  written  by  William  Langland  between 
1362  and  I'.VXS,  we  find  proof  of  a  growing  desire  for  a  purer 
religion.  Tliis  poem  attacks  the  friars  who  aid  Pride,  Envy, 
and  Sloth  to  corrupt  the  church  and  stifle  the  individual  con- 
science, ami  narrates  how  Conscience  is  obliged  to  reject  the 
guidance  of  those  recreant  servants  of  religion  and  depend  upon 
itself  to  find  Christ,  the  Savior  (identified  with  the  despised 
laborer  "Piers  the  Plowman"). 

At  the  same   time,  the  church  itself  was  scathingly  criti- 
cised by  John  Wyclif  (1324-1384),  Master  of  Paliol  College. 
Oxford,    who   thought    that    irreligion   and   worldliness      222.  Else 
among  the  .secular  clergy  were  due  to  the  close  connec-      °^  '^^  ^°^' 
tion  between  church  and  state.     His  zeal  gave  rise  to  a  (1378-1400) 
new  sect,  nicknamed  the  Lollards  (psalm-singing  loafers).   The 
Lollards  demanded  that  churchmen  be  no  longer  employed  in 
the  pul)lic  service,  and  they  clamored  for  the  reform  of  church 
abuses,  including    (1)  "simony,"  or  the  purchase  of  lucrative 
benefices ;    (2)   "  pluralities,"  or  the  holding  of  several  bene- 
fices by  a  single  clergyman,  who  enjoyed  the   revenues  but 
left  most  of  his  pastoral  cares  to  cheaply  paid  assistants ;   and 
(3)   "  absenteeism,"  or  the  holding  of  a  living  in  one  parish 
while  residing  in  another. 

Wyclif   himself    lielieved    that    the   clergy,    in    accordance 
with  Christ's  teachings,  ought  to  remain  poor;   and  he 
mged   that   the   church    be   di.sestablished,    and    all    its     uts  teach- 
])roperty  confiscated  to  the  uses  of  the  state,      lie  still  "^K" 

further  shocked  his  superiors  by  (1)  denying  the  supremacy  of 


204 


CULMINATION    OF   FEUDALISM 


the  Pope  over  the  other  bishops  of  the  church  and  his  author- 
ity "to  bind  and  to  loose"  by  exconunnnication,  and  (2) 
denying  transubstantiation,  the  important  Roman  Catholic 
dogma  that,  at  the  celebration  of  the  mass,  the  substance  com- 
posing the  bread  and  wine  is  miraculously  changed  into  the 

body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  Attacked  by 
the  church  officials  for 
heresy,  he  was  saved 
once  by  the  interfer- 
ence of  John  of  Gaunt, 
and  once  by  that  of 
King  Richard's  moth- 
er;  on  a  third  occa- 
sion he  found  himself 
strong  enough  to  ignore 
the  decree  of  a  church 
council. 

The  secret  of  Wyc- 
lif's    influence    lay    in 
the    fact    that    by    a 
translation  of   the  en- 
JoHN  Wtclif.  tire  Bible  into  English, 

From  an  old  print.  prepared     by    himself 

and  his  pupils,  he  opened  the  more  important  portions  of 
Scripture  to  the  general  reader.  Equipped  with  these  weap- 
ons, missionary  priests  trained  by  him  went  all  over  Eng- 
land, to  tell  the  people  that  they  were  being  defrauded  by 
their  religious  teachers,  since  they  were  losing  the  true  Gos- 
pel teaching  necessary  for  the  salvation  of  their  souls,  and 
since  the  wealth  bequeathed  to  the  church  for  the  needs  of 
the  poor  was  wasted.  So  widespread  was  the  movement  that 
it  was  said  "every  other  man  you  meet  is  a  Lollard":  so  far- 
reaching  was  their  teaching  that  twice  (in  1404:  and  in  1410) 


SOCIAL    AND    ECONoMK"    1>R0GRESS    (12i>M400)        20.*) 

it  was  seriously  proposed  in  the  lower  house  of  I'arliauient  to 
confiscate  the  temporalities  of  the  church. 

Ever  since  the  Norman  conquest  there  had  been  slowly  de- 
veloping a  new  tongue,  the  modern  English  language.  The 
language  of  the  ruling  classes  after  the  conquest  was,  of      224.  Eng- 

course,  Norman   French,   and   to  this  the  natives   wen-      „,//„„  f°i 
'  guage  and 

obliged  to  adapt  their  own  speech.  The  result  was  that  literature 
about  a  third  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  formerly  in  use  were 
discarded  for  their  French  equivalents,  and  the  other  two  thirds 
(the  homely  terms  required  for  everyday  use)  lost  most  of  their 
numerous  grammatical  inflections;  for  instance,  half  a  dozen 
different  plural  eiulings  for  nouns.  Moreover,  the  language 
gained  many  new  words  referring  to  Norman  manners  and 
customs  —  to  hunting  and  hawking,  to  architecture  and  the 
other  arts,  to  law  and  to  religion.  Poetry,  too,  changed  its 
form.  Under  the  Anglo-Saxons,  alliteration  was  the  essential 
element  in  poetic  form  ;  under  the  Norman.s,  rhyme  and  meter 
were  the  essentials,  final  e  being  in  English,  as  in  French  at 
that  time,  always  pronounced  as  a  separate  syllable. 

There  are  two  or  three  notable  landmarks  in  the  history  of  the 
new  English  language :  one  when  the  first  royal  proclamation 
was  made  in  English  (llTiS);  another  when  instruction  iu  the 
schools  was  first  given  in  English  (1349)  ;  and  another  when 
the  use  of  English  was  authorized  in  the  law  courts  (Viit'2). 
Up  to  this  time  all  the  English  poems  had  been  "written  in 
dialects  of  English.''  Now  "a  standard  English  language  was 
l)orn.  ...     It  was  fixed  in  clear  form  by  Ciiaucer  ami  /irooke. 

Gower.  ...     It  was  the  King's  English,  and   the  fact  f^"{/''»'' 

°  "  '  Literature, 

that  it  was  the  tongue  of  the  best  and  most  cultivated  ch.H. 

society,  as  well  as  the  great  excellence  of  the  works  written  in 
it  by  these  poets,  made  it  at  once  the  tongue  of  literature." 
^foreover,  its  existence  ]»roved  that  the  |)roc«'Ss  of  blending 
con(pierors  and  conquered,  Normans  and  Anglo-Saxons,  into  a 
new  English  people,  was  now  an  accomplished  fact. 
WALKKit'-  km;.  iii*r.  —  13 


206 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


For  iuforniation  regarding  the  state  of  Englisli  society  as 

it  existed  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteentli  century,  the   stu- 

225.  Chau-    dent  need  only  turn  to  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales.     The 

cer  s  pic-        tales  themselves  are  drawn  very  largely  from  Continental 
tures  of  .  . 

society  romances,  but  in  their  Prologue,  which  describes  a  com- 

pany assembled  at  the  Tabard  lun  at  Southwark,  on  their  way 


Chaucer's  Pilgrims  settixg  out  from  the  Tabard  Inn. 

From  Urry's  Chaucer;  1721;  probably  copied  from  a  print  made  before 
the  burning  of  tlie  inn  in  1()76. 

to  the  shrine  of  Saint  Thomas  a  Becket  at  Canterbury,  Chaucer 
depicted  for  posterity  every  important  type  among  the  middle 
classes  in  England. 

In  the  Knight  and  his  Squier  we  are  shown  the  temper  of 
the  crusader,  who  ever 

"  lov6d  chivalrie, 
Trouthe  and  honour,  fredom  and  curtsie," 

and  of  the  troubadour,  who 

"  Coulde  songes  make,  and  well  endite. 
Juste  and  eke  dance,  and  well  pourtraie  and  write. 
So  hole  he  lov^d,  that  by  nightertale 
He  slep  no  more  than  doth  the  nightingale." 

In    the    account    of    the    Merchant    and    the    smuggling 
Shipmau,  we   see    the  system    of   international   exchange,  of 


SOCIAL    AM)    IX'ONOMIC    IMJoiJUKSS    (12.')0-140()) 


L'01 


business  credit,  and  of  customs  duties,  and  tlie  demand  for 
state  suppression  of  piracy;  the  Sergeant  of  the  Law 
knows  by  rote  not  oidy  all  the  old  ''dooms"  (judgments)  as 
far  back  as  the  Xornian  con(picst,  but  also  the  latest  statute 
laws  of  King  Edward;  the  Clerk  from  Oxenforde  and  the 
Doctour  of  Physike  share  the  new  interest  in  intellectual 
pursuits,  and  its  accomitanying  tendency  toward  independence 
in  religion;  and  the  several  ecclesiastics  show  the  vices  which 
gave  ground  for  public  criticism.  The  sentimentality  of  the 
nuns,  the  laziness  and  luxury  of  the  monks,  the  sensuality 
of  the  friars,  the  greediness  and  trickery  of  the  pardoners, 
all  are  set  forth  with  merciless  frankness,  and  are  sharply 
contrasted  with  the  holiness  and  devotion  of  the  parish  priest, 
who  not  only  taught 

"  Cliristes  lore, 
But  first  1r'  fuhved  it  liimselve." 

All  the  political  divisions  are  represented  in  this  company. 
From  the  towns  have  come  the  haberdasher,  the  carpenter, 
and  the  weaver,  -wearing  the  liverv  of  their  trade  and  craft 


Laoy  travkli\<s  in  a  Hoksp.  Litter,  WITi. 
From  a  MS.  Gfntes  iI<'k  Rnis  de  Fninre,  fnurteetith  rentury. 

guilds;  the  widow  of  a  w»*althy  citizen;  and  the  petty  officers 
of  the  Temple  and  the  church  courts.  From  the  rural  dis- 
tricts are  gathered  the  freeholder  with  lands  extensive  enough 
to  qualify  him  to  serve  as  knight  of  the  sliire,  with  the  reeve 
of  the  manor,  its  miller,  its.  plowman,  its  eook,  its  forester. 


208  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

Nowhere  else  is  to  be  found  so  compreliensive  a  picture  of 

mediaeval  England  as  this  from  the  pen  of  the  Father  of  English 

Literature, 

"Dan  Chaucer,  well  of  English  undefilecl." 

This  picture  suggests  also  the  change  by  which  the  feudal- 
ism  of  the    Xorman   period   became   the  "  chivalry "  of    the 

226.  Trend    Angevin  or  Plantagenet  period.      Knighthood,  originally 

of  feudal-       concerned  with  landed  possessions  and  military  service 

ism  toward  ^  _ 

chivalry         on  horseback,  had  gradually  come  to  concern  itself  with 

standards  of  honor,  courtesy,  and  duty,  and  with  social  laws. 
It  was  now  an  order  into  which  applicants  were  initiated 
with  ceremony  after  an  arduous  apprenticeship,  and  which 
bound  its  members  to  aid  the  oppressed,  to  honor  women,  and 
to  maintain  the  right.  As  professional  soldiers  displaced  the 
feudal  levies,  as  kings  gained  power  at  the  expense  of  their 
vassals,  as  the  rise  of  towns  and  manufactures  reduced  the 
number  of  feudal  dependents,  the  ornamental  side  of  feudal- 
ism grew  at  the  expense  of  its  serious  side.  Tournaments,  or 
sham  battles,  became  common  in  England  about  the  time  of 
Edward  L;  instead  of  founding  a  working  order  like,  the 
Knights  Templars,  Edward  III.  instituted  the  purely  social  and 
decorative  order  of  the  Knights  of  the  Garter ;  the  same  monarch 
instituted  courts  of  chivalry  to  try  offending  knights  and  to 
determine  points  of  honor ;  heraldry,  or  the  distinguishing  of 
families  by  symbolic  "  coats  of  arms,"  was  gradually  raised  to 
a  science.  Chaucer,  who  refers  again  and  again  to  knights 
and  tournaments,  makes  even  Virginius,  the  ancient  Koman 
hero,  a  "knight." 

Before  Chaucer  had  penned  his  descriptions,  a  calamity  fell 
upon   England  which   disturbed   the   normal   development  of 

o««    m,  EuQjlish    social    institutions,   and    in    a   few  generations 

227.  The  °  '  ^         _ 

"Black  produced  a  most   sweeping   transformation.      This  was 

^^*  the  celebrated   "  l>laek   Death,"  which  ravaged   Europe 

and  reached  England  in  the  summer  of  1348.    At  this  time  the 


SOCIAL    AM)    KroNO.MK"    TUOGRESS    (12o0-l»n(i)         i^QO 

mass  of  tho  population,  both  in  tlie  towns  and  in  tin-  count ly, 
lived  under  very  unhealtliful  conditions,  wliieli  in  l.'M.S  were 
aj^'gravated  by  a  rainy  season.  For  thirteen  wt-ary  months 
England  suffered  from  the  scourge,  which  assumed  the  form 
of  violent  typhus  fever,  accompanied  by  eruptions  and  black 
blotches  on  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  manorial  rolls 
show  that  hsjlf  of  the  rural  population  died  within  a  year. 
Among  the  victims  were  a  daughter  of  Edward  III.,  two  arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury,  and  an  enormous  number  of  the  clergy, 
whose  religious  duties  took  them  constantly  to  the  bedsides 
of  the  sick.  In  Yorkshire,  half  of  the  parish  priests  fell 
victims  to  duty,  and  the  records  of  the  Franciscan  friars  show 
that  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  of  them  met  the 
same  fate.  Business  at  Bristol  was  so  interrupted  that  grass 
grew  in  the  market  place;  in  London  a  new  cemetery  thirteen 
acres  in  extent  had  to  be  pi-ovided  to  receive  the  bodies  of  the 
fifty  thousand  people  struck  down  by  the  disease.  The  Black 
Deatli  found  England  with  a  population  of  four  millions;  it 
left  England  with  but  two  millions. 

So  vast  a  mortality  among  the  working  classes  wholly 
altered  the  conditions  of  agricultural  labor  in  England.  On 
many   manors  there  were  few  or  no  villeins   left  alive,   228.  Rapid 

and  the  landholders  were  obi i^red  to  offer  high  wages  in       spread  of 

the  wage 
open  market  for  laborers.     This  led  the  laborers  on  other  system 

manors,  where  the  lords  had  already  commuted  the  irregulai- 

rents  and  services  of  villeins  for  money  and  were  employing 

day  labor,  to  demand  increased  pay;  but  their  lords,  in  turn, 

repudiated  their  agreement  to  commute  rents  and  services  for 

money,  and  required  from  all  former  villeins  their  customary 

amount    of    weekly   labor    at    plowing,    sowing,    harvesting, 

woodcutting,  etc.     Where  this  failed,  they,  too,  were  forced  to 

bid  for  labor.     The  otTer  of  high   wages  tempted  villeins  to 

leave  their  nmnors,  thus    creating  vagabondage  and  conflicts 

of  authority. 


210  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

In  1349  Edward  III.  decreed  that  every  able-bodied  man  aud 
woman  of  the  kingdom,  bond  or  free,  under  sixty  years  of  age, 
should  accept  the  same  wages  as  before  the  Black  Death,  and 
forbade  any  one  to  give  charity  to  an  able-bodied  laborer. 
In  1351  Parliament  enacted  a  Statute  of  Laborers,  which 
empowered  conservators  of  the  peace,  now  called  justices  of  the 
peace,  to  establish  a  legal  rate  of  wages.  This  jii-oduced  little 
effect,  and  in  1360  a  statute  Avas  framed,  which  provided  that 
a  laborer  who  deserted  his  manor  should  be  imprisoned  and 
branded  in  the  forehead. 

Whenever  such  painful  changes  occur  as  a  result  of  irresist- 
ible   economic  laws,  the  less  intelligent  classes  are  prone   to 
229.  Dis-       lay  the  blame  upon  the  government.      To  thirty  years' 

con  ent  brooding  over  their  wrongs  may  be  attributed  the  Peas- 

among  the  *  *^ 

peasants  ants'  Revolt  of  1381.  The  villeins  were  stirred  to  rebel- 
lion through  comparison  of  their  lot  with  that  of  the  free 
tenants;  the  townspeople  resented  tolls  and  market  fees  which 
raised  the  price  of  provisions,  and  the  heavy  taxation  due  to 
useless  foreign  wars. 

The  peasants  were  especially  affected  by  the  teachings  of  a 
priest  named  John  Ball,  who  went  about  Kent  urging  the 
lower  classes  to  organize  a  communistic  state  by  abolishing 
class  distinctions  and  the  private  ownership  of  land.     "  Are 

_    .      ,       we  not  descended,"  he  cried,  "from  the  same  parents, 
Froissart,  '  '  r  > 

Chronicles,  Adam  and  Eve  ?  and  what  can  they  [the  upper  classes] 
show,  or  what  reasons  give,  why  they  should  be  more 
the  masters  than  ourselves?  .  .  .  They  are  clothed  in  velvets 
and  rich  stuffs  ornamented  with  ermine  and  other  furs,  while 
we  are  forced  to  wear  poor  cloth ;  they  have  wines,  spices,  and 
fine  bread,  when  we  have  only  rye  and  the  refuse  of  the  straw, 
and  if  we  drink,  it  must  be  water;  .  .  .  but  it  is  from  our 
labor  they  have  wherewith  to  support  their  pomp!"  Thou- 
sands were  made  ripe  for  revolt  by  such  teachings,  condensed 
into  the  doggerel  couplet, 


SOCIAL    AM)    KCOM'MK'    rUUGKESS    (ll'aO-lk»())         211 

"  When  Adam  iklved,  and  Vive  span, 
Who  was  tlien  the  gentleman  ?  " 

In  1380  a  poll  tax  was  laid  upon  all  persons  over  fifteen 

years  old,   the    money   to   be    spent    upon    the    French   wars. 

The  next  year  a  brutal  tax  collector,  in  Kent,  insulted      230    Wat 

the   daughter   of    an    artisan    named   Wat   Tyler,    who     "^^^  ^,^®" 
°  •^       '  bellioa 

promptly  struck  him  dead  and  rallied  to  his  support  all  (1381) 

the  discontented  men  in  the  neighborhood.  Plunder  and  the 
murder  of  tax  collectors  and  other  <,'overnment  otticers  followed 
in  various  parts  of  England;  mobs  overran  Hertfordshire  and 
Essex,  destroyed  much  property  in  an  attempt  to  burn  up  the 
manorial  copy  rolls,  released  John  Ball  from  prison,  and  con- 
centrated on  London,  demanding  the  abolition  of  villenage, 
the  total  withdrawal  of  certain  taxes  and  the  adoption  of  a 
reasonable  rate  for  the  rest,  and  free  pardon  for  all  concerned 
in  the  movement.  At  this  time  Richard  II.  was  only  fifteen 
years  old,  but  he  had  great  courage,  and  shrewdness  far 
beyond  his  years.  Tyler  was  killed  in  a  scuifie,  and  the  king 
himself  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  insurgents,  pledging  his 
word  for  the  redress  of  grievances.  Thirty  clerks  were  set  at 
work  drawing  up  new  charters,  and  the  insurgents  dispersed. 
Then  the  King's  Council  again  assumed  control,  and  by  seiz- 
ing and  executing  the  leaders  individually,  stamped  out  the 
revolt  everywhere. 

Neither  kings,  nor  Parliament,  nor  the  execution  of  rebels, 
nor  labor  legislation  could  check   the  operation   of  e('(»iu)mi(' 
laws.     The  lords  of  the  manors  were  obliged  either  to       231    Per- 
hirt'  laliort-rs  at  tlit-ir  own  terms  or  to  seek  a  profit  from       .  J°*f^^ 
tln'ir  estates  and  stiwk  l)y  leasing  Iwth  in  small  lots  to         changes 
the  more  enterprising  of  the  former  villeins.     Thus  arose  the 
moilern  tyi)e  of  small  farmer,  paying  rent  to  a  landlord  and 
paying  wages  to  his  laborers.     Villenage  now  ])raetically  dis- 
api>eared ;  for,  although  the  law  covered  all  villeins  who  broke 
tiieir  contracts,  labor  was  scarce,   and  "  men   in   prison  reap 


212  CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 

no  fields."  Indeed,  in  the  years  succeeding  the  Black  Death 
not  all  the  laborers  in  England  would  have  sufficed  to  till  the 
arable  land ;  and,  in  consequence,  a  further  involuntary  change 
was  brought  about.  During  the  next  two  centuries  wool 
growing,  which  I'equired  but  comparatively  little  labor,  and 
which  constantly  became  more  profitable  with  the  development 
of  manufactures,  by  degrees  replaced  agriculture  as  a  source  of 
revenue  on  the  greater  manors. 

Until  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  entire  crop 
of  English-raised  wool  was  shipped  to  Flanders  for  manufac- 

232.  Eise      ture,   where,   in  Bruges,   Ghent,  Lille,  and  Ypres,  forty 

o  manu  ac-   ^j^Q^g.^j^^j  looms  were  busy  converting  it  into  cloth  fab- 

ture  and  -^  ® 

commerce      rics  to  be  rein) ported  into  England  for  sale.    Edward  III. 

saw  that  this  was  economically  wasteful,  so  he  took  measures 
to  induce  skilled  Flemish  weavers  to  immigrate  into  England; 
he  also  restricted  the  exportation  of  wool  and  the  importation 
of  woolen  cloth,  thereby  building  up  the  English  cloth  manu- 
facturing industry.  More  important  still,  he  helped  to  create 
an  English  mercantile  marine,  to  destroy  the  monopoly  of 
trade  hitherto  enjoyed  by  the  Hanseatic  League. 

This  Hansa,  founded  in  1169  for  the  defense  of  vessels  in 
the  Baltic  and  North  seas  against  piracy,  later  included  all 
the  great  trading  towns  of  north  Germany.  So  powerful  was 
it  that  it  maintained  armies  and  fleets,  made  treaties  like  a 
sovereign  state,  and  monopolized  for  a  time  the  trade  of 
northern  Europe.  It  was  no  small  triumph  for  the  English 
merchants  to  compete  successfully  against  the  Hanse  mer- 
chants, with  their  great  weighing  depot  called  the  Steelyard 
in  London,  their  monopoly  of  the  right  to  trade  with  northern 
Europe,  and  their  vast  capital  and  agencies  for  exchange. 

A   curious  indirect  result  of  the  rise  of  manufactures  and 

233.  commerce  in  England  was  a  change  in  the  standards  of 
fastens  of  ^^^^^^o-  LaWs  passed  during  this  period,  especially  in  re- 
dress gard  to  wearing  apparel,  testify  to  luxurious  tastes  and 


SOCIAL    AM)    KCONO.MIC    I'UOGKKSS    (1200-1400)         213 


liabits  liitlieito  unknown.    "(,)ne  ordiuauce  sets  out  that  'shei>- 
herils  and  all  manner  of  people  attending  to  husbandiv  are 
not  to  wear  any  maimer  of  cloth  except  blanket  and  russet    Finmmore, 
wool  of  V2d.  a  yard ; '  another,  'that  the  poor  come  to  eat     '^'"■"''  ^'-^^ 
in  a  manner  that  pertaineth  to  them,  and  not  excessively.'  j-m,  140 

No  age  was  marked  by  greater  splendour  and  more  costly  ex- 
travagance than  that  of  Edward  III.,  when  many  of  these  laws 
were  passed,  lioth  men  and  women 
wore  a  tight-fitting  dress  called  a 
'  cotte-hardie,'  and  over  this  a  large 
mantle  buttoned  at  tlie  shoulder.  Both 
of  these  garments  were  magnificently 
embroidered,  made  of  the  richest  and 
most  expensive  materials,  and  of  the 
gayest  hues,  scarlet  or  some  equally 
brilliant  colour.  The  head  was  cov- 
ered by  a  small  hood  decorated  with 
gold,  silver,  and  jewels.  The  men 
wore  parti-coloured  hose,  and  their 
sho«»s  had  long  points  curling  up- 
wards, sometimes  so  long  that  they 
were  looped  to  the  knee  with  chains 
of  gold." 

A  further  result  of  the  growth  of 
commerce  was  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  a  rudimentary  intermitional, 
law.  Before  the  fourteenth  century,  a  noble  hail  certain  rec- 
ognized rights  the  world  over,  but  a  merchant,  outside  of 
tlie  limits  of  his  native  state,  liad  no  rights:  if  he  died      234    Kise 

abroad  he  could  leave  no  valid  will   for  the  disposal  of         of  inter 

'  national 

his  property:    if   his  vessel   was  wrecked   on   a   foreign  law 

shore,  ship  and  property  became  the  possession  of  the  lord  of 

that  coast.     Edward   III.  established  certain  "stai)le  towns," 

in  which  foreign  commerce  was  carried  on  under  the  suj)er- 


Men'.s  Costdmk, 

TiMK   OF    EnW.VKI)    III. 

C'bains  at  knee  to  hold  up 
the  points  of  shoes  in 
walking. 


214 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


tt 


\ 


\ 


vision  and  protection  of  responsible  authorities,  and  he  regu- 
lated the  rights  and  privileges  of  foreign  merchants.  ■  Finding 

that  Englishmen  were  still 
at  a  disadvantage  in  for- 
eign trade,  he  made  Calais 
a  staple  town;  and  he 
chartered  a  Mercer's 
Company  which  was  the 
nucleus  of  the  later  Com- 
pany   of    Merchant    Ad- 


W 


P 


I 


53 


XK      Av      XX 


Staple  Marks  of  Merchants, 
Fourteenth  Century. 

John  Walden.    John  Prowse.     George  Slee. 


venturers  (§  275).  Still 
more  important  was  his  at- 
tempt to  protect  merchant 
cargoes  in  crossing  the  Channel ;  for  iu  order  to  do  this  he  was 
led  to  put  forth  a  claim  to  the  sovereignty  of  the  "  narrow  seas  " 
(all  the  coast  waters  of  Britain)  ;  and  the  maintenance  of  this 
claim  fostered  the  maritime  spirit  of  the  English  people,  and 
powerfully  influenced  their  history  during  three  hundred  years. 


In  the  later  Plantagenet  period,  England  underwent  an  intel- 
lectual and  an  industrial  revolution.     By  the  former  the  fa- 
235    Sum-     vored  few  were  initiated  into  the  larger  intellectual  life 
mary  which  comes  through  the  knowledge  of  books  and  asso- 

ciation with  thinkers  ;  by  the  latter  the  masses  were  freed  from 
the  bonds  of  the  personal-service  system  of  labor,  emerging 
into  the  comparative  freedom  of  the  competitive-wage  system. 
The  intellectual  uplift,  whether  it  foilnd  expression  in  the 
movement  for  religious  reform  or  in  that  for  scientific  research, 
had  to  contend  against  tradition  and  settled  beliefs.  Its  cham- 
pions therefore  failed  to  accomplish  their  immediate  aims;  but 
the  influence  of  Wyclif,  imparted  to  certain  students  from 
Bohemia  then  residing  at  Oxford,  was  reflected  back  to  Eng- 
land in  the  later  labor  of  disciples  of  Huss,  Luther,  and  Calvin. 
The  industrial  uplift  was  appai-ently  a  more  immediate  success; 


SOCIAL    AND    KCt>N<>MIC    I'KOGUESS    (r>o(i-14<M»)        21o 

but  in  coiiiiu'llinj,'  the  lords  to  resort  to  slieep  fanning,  tlie  vil- 
lein was  blindly  destroying  his  rights  to  the  soil,  and  was 
hastening  the  day  when  he  and  his  kind  would  have  to  ex- 
change the  field  for  the  factory,  and  the  spade  and  mattock 
for  the  uiachiue. 

TOPICS 

( I )  Why  should  contemporary  writers  exaggerate  the  vices  of  the    Suggestive 
friars,  and  ignore  their  great  services  to  the  community  ?    (2)  Con-    t°P'C8 
tra-st  the  uses  of  the  term  '-college"'  in  England  and  in  the  United 

States.  (."))  What  is  the  origin  of  the  term  "  simony  "  ?  (4)  Do 
you  know  of  any  modern  instances  wiiere  John  Ball's  remedy  for 
poverty  ha,s  been  proposed  ?  (5)  What  serious  objections  may  be 
framed  to  his  remedies  ?  (6)  What  advantage  did  the  villeins  hope 
to  gain  by  destroying  the  manorial  records  ?  (7)  Why  are  sump- 
tuary laws  generally  ineffective  ?  (8)  Why  do  modern  highly 
civilized  nations  never  suffer  from  a  Black  Death  ?  (9)  Why 
was  the  commutation  of  villein  labor  for  money  before  the  Black 
Death  profitable  for  both  lord  and  villein?  (10)  What  were  the 
rates  of  the  poll  tax  of  lOHO  ;  were  they  equitable  ? 

(II)  Life  at  an  Englisli  university.  (12)  Medi;eval  science;  Search 
astmlogj-  and  alchemy.  (18)  Chaucer's  life  as  an  equipment  for  t°Pic8 
his  literarj- work.     (14)  Some  peculiarities  of  Wyciif's  translation 

of  the  Bible.  (15)  Chaucer's  portrait  of  the  monk  and  the  nun. 
(10)  The  Hanseatic  League  compared  witli  a  modern  trust. 
(17)  Accounts  of  the  Black  Deatii.  (18)  Contemporary  accounts 
of  Wat  Tyler's  rebellion.  (19)  What  did  the  English  know  of 
Aristotle?  (20)  A  state  dinner  of  the  period.  (21)  A  ship  in  the 
time  of  Edward  III. 


REFERENCES 

Bright,  Histnnj  of  Eiuihind.  I.  174-17'..  18<U18R,  24.^-24.'),  2.".- 
274;  Giirdiner.  Stiiilenrx  History,  24«U25(i.  2.'.7-2(t;;,  26<»-'J77  ; 
Ransome,  Ailtnurpil  Ilistor;/,  2(K»-21.S,  2(!9-277,  28(i-2H4.  287-289; 
(Jreen,  Shorf  flistonj,  182-141.  147-1.'.2,  19.'i-2(tl,  2.]r,-2t!(».— //(W^,r;/ 
f)f  tfu'  Enijlish  Piople,  bk.  iv.  ch.  iii. ;  I'owell  an'l  Tout.  Ilistori/  of 
Kiif/I'tiid,  I.  bk.  iv.  ch.  v. ;  Montague.  Elements  of  Constitutional 
Iliston/.  80-91  ;  (libbina.  Industrial  Historij,  40-81  ;  Cheyney, 
Intrndurtion  to  Industrial  and  Social  Ilistnr;/,  ch.s.  iv.  v.  ;  Cun- 
ningham and  McArthur,  Industrial  History,  30-4.3  ;  Cunningham, 


SecondaTT 
authorities 


216 


CULMINATION   OF   FEUDALISM 


Sources 


Illustrative 
work 


GroiPth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  bk.  iii.  ;  also,  381- 
403 ;  Rogers,  Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages,  chs.  vii.-ix. ; 
Lingard,  History  of  England,  II.  ch.  viL,  III.  ch.  i.  ;  Pearson, 
English  History  in  the  Fourteenth  Century,  chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Stubbs, 
Constitutional  History,  III.  ch.  xxi. ;  Batesoa,  Mediaeval  England, 
pt.  iii.;  Traill,  Social  England,  I.  4-29-450;  Jessop,  Coming  of  the 
Friars,  chs.  ii.-vi.  ;  Trevelyan,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wycliffe; 
Barnard,  Companion  to  English  History  in  the  3Iiddle  Ages; 
"Wakeman,  Introduction  to  History  of  Church  of  England,  chs. 
viii.  ix.  ;  Edwards,  Wales,  ch.  xv.  ;  GreeM,  Oxford  Studies ;  Mrs. 
J.  R.  Green,  Toicn  Life  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  II.  ch.  ix. ; 
Tliompson,  Essay  on  Municipal  History,  20  et  seq. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  41—43,  69,  70,  74, 
82,  89-92 ;  Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  32,  33,  36,  37, 
40-42,  49;  Kendall,  Source-Book,  nos.  32-36;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  xxxvi.-xxxviil.  xli.  ;  Powell 
and  Trevelyan,  TTie  Peasants'"  Rising  and  the  Lollards;  Frazer, 
English  History  from  Original  Sources,  pt.  ii.  34-84 ;  Cheyney, 
England  in  the  Time  of  Wycliffe  (University  of  Pennsylvania 
Reprints,  II.no.  5);  Chaucer.  "■  ProJogtie''''  to  Canterbury  Tales; 
Langland,  Vision  of  Piers  Ploughman. 

Southey,  Wat  Tyler. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

FOKKIGN    WARS    LNDKlt     llIF-    LAN(  AS  TIIIAN    KINCS 
(lu'J'J-14oo) 

Hexrv  IV.'s  brief  reign  of  fourteen  years  was  marked  by 
few  strikiui,'  events;  but  it  was  of  great  importance  in  English 
constitutional  history  because  of  the  peculiar  position  ot    236.   Eeifn 
the  monarch.     Although  of  the  blood  royal,  he  could  not      j^  ,1399^ 
claim  the  throne  by  inheritance,  for  there  were  several  1413) 

heirs    nearer   than  he,  the    nearest,   after    the   de]X)sed    King 
Richard,  being  Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March,  then  seven 

EDWARD  III. 


Kdwiird 

Ik«  Blx-k  I-rlan 


I.RICHARD  II. 


riiilii>|>ii 


Roger  MortlnuT   Sir  I'°.<liiiiiii(l 

till.fM.rh  MorlillllT 


John  iif  (ilium 
Dukiof 
Laiiciister 


2.  HENRY  IV. 


3.  HENRY  V. 


4.  HENRY  VI. 


KtliDuiiil  Mortimer      Aiiiit;  Murtinicr- 

EutufMarvb 


ElllDUIul 

Duki.'  01"  York 


Tlii'ma.-? 

Duke  of  (ili>uc««t«T 


srCCESSION 

OK 

pl.v\ta(;enet, 

LAN<  .VSTKli, 
AM)  VOUK 


C«rt  of  Cmmbrldf* 


I 

E,  EDWARD  iV 


Hl.ruirU 
Duke  of  York 

IV    1,   I    r     f  r..4ll,i.  1 
1 


7.   RICHARD 


6.    EDWARD  V 

RkI.AI  liiN    OK    l)|.:srKNDANTS    ity    EpWAUli    III. 


years  old.     As  the  cn\itnre  of  Parliament,  Henry  wa.N  obliged 
to  defer   to  the   wishes  of    the   great    barons   and    <lMir<hiiien 

iil7 


218  DECADENCE  OF  FEUDALISM 

who  dominated  that  body ;  and  he  knew  that  they  supported 
him  chiefly  because  they  hated  the  deposed  king,  and  because 
they  were  unwilling  to  have  the  throne  again  occupied  by  a 
minor.  Harassed  by  the  factional  quarrels  that  always  come 
with  revolution,  threatened  by  the  French,  the  Scots,  and 
the  Welsh,  only  a  king  who  had  a  strong  hand  could  have 
retained  his  grasp  on  the  scepter ;  but  this  strong  hand  Henry 
possessed. 

During  his  reign  Henry  overcame  nine  separate  conspiracies 

and  invasions.     He  took  advantage  of  the  first  of  these,  a  con- 

237.  Re-       spiracy  among  the  late  king's  partisans,  to  cause  Richard 

volts  in  the    to  be  put  to  death.     Aided  by  the  splendid  military  abili- 
westand  j  r  j 

north  ties  of  the  Percys,  lords  of  the  marches  in  Northumber- 

(1400-1403)  land,  he  checked  the  invasions  of  the  Scots,  and  held 
back  a  Welsh  chief,  Owen  Glendower,  now  in  open  rebellion ; 
but  an  error  of  judgment  soon  turned  these  supporters  into 
enemies.  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer,  an  uncle  of  the  young  Earl 
of  March,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Glendower,  and  his.  brother- 
in-law  "young  Harry  Hotspur,"  the  most  brilliant  fighter 
among  the  Percys,  demanded  that  the  king  should  secure  his 
release.  Henry  ungraciously  refused,  and  Hotspur,  enraged 
at  such  ingratitude,  induced  his  father,  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, and  his  uncle,  Earl  of  Worcester,  to  rebel  against  Henry 
and  join  forces  with  their  late  enemies,  the  Scots  and  the 
Welsh  ;  thus  the  entire  strength  of  the  north  was  speedily 
joined  to  that  of  the  west,  and  by  proclaiming  the  little  Earl 
of  March  king,  they  drew  still  more  recruits. 

Henry  promptly  attacked    the   rebels ;   and  in  July,  1403, 

fought  a  battle  at  Shrewsbury,  killed  Hotspur,  and  captured 

_  and  executed  his  uncle.     A  renewal  of  the  rising  (1408) 

ration  of        led    to  the  execution  of   the   Earl   of   Northumberland. 

order  Thus   all    the    chief   conspirators  in  England    perished, 

and  the  fortunate  capture  of  the  son  of  the  king  of  Scotland 

soon   afterward  rendered  further  trouble  from  the  Scots  un- 


forei(;n  waks  rNi)i:u  r-AxrAsriiiAN  kincs      J19 


Chvkch  o> 


>ni;K\v.si>riiY 


likely.      Feelini,',  j)rol)ul)ly,  tliat    religious  excitements  might 
px'omote  agitation  for  political  changes,  Heniv  made  himself 
the    chanipiou    of    ortho- 
doxy  in    religion.      With 
his  assent  the  statute  De 
Uieretico  Combitreiulo  was 
passed    in    1401,    which 
decreed  the  burning  alive 
of   persons   convicted    ot 
heresy  for  the  second  time. 
Under  this  statute  many 
of   tlie    Lollards   suffered 
imprisonment  and  death. 
Henry  IV.  suffered  from 
ill  health  after  1407,  and 
the  young  Prince  Henry 
was  forced  to  assume  most 
of  the  burden  of  adminis- 
tering the  government,  until  his  father's  death  in  the  year  1413. 
Henry  V.,  although  he  reigned  only  nine  years,  has  always 
been  a  notable  figure  in  English  history,  i»artly  througli  his 
romantic  and  attractive  personality,  partly   because  he 
was  the  last  English  monarch  to  win  renown  in  the  long       V    1413- 
struggle  with  France.     Shakespeare's  jucture  of  him  in  I422j 

Henry  IV.,  where  he  is  represented  as  devoting  his  youth  to 
riotous  anuusements  with  coarse  companions,  is  wide  of  the 
truth.  He  was  trained  in  administration  and  the  art  of  war 
from  his  very  boyhood,  having  been  made  Earl  of  Chester  and 
intrusted  with  the  guardianship  of  the  Welsh  lx)rdcr  under 
Hotsjmr's  direction  when  only  twelve  years  of  age.  He  was  a 
strong  ruler,  self-<'()ntr(>lK'd,  industrious,  earnest,  and  religious. 
Unfortunately,  he  felt  tliat  honor  bound  him  to  maintain  the 
English  claims  on  Franct- ;  and  |)erhaps  he  sought  the  safety 
of  a  usurpin.:  nioiiarch  by  da//ling  his  subiHcts  with  military 


Battlefield. 


220 


DECADENCE   OF  FEUDALISM 


240.   Condi 
tions  in 
France 
(1413; 


glory  and  employing  their  surplus  energies  in  foreign  expedi- 
tions. However  brilliant  his  immediate  success,  Henry's  foreign 
policy  was  disastrous  to  England  and  to  his 
own  dynasty. 

Political  dissensions  in  France  at  Henry's 
accession  to  the  throne  appeared  to  invite 
the  interference  of  an  enterprising  monarch. 
The  king  of  France,  Charles  VI.,  was  insane  ; 
his  cousin  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  his 
brother  the  Duke  of  Orleans  were  engaged  in 
a  blood  feud ;  and  the  youthful  Dauphin  (heir 
to  the  French  throne),  as  regent,  was  powerless 
to  preserve  order.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  was 
Heraldic  Device   ^-Iso  Count  of  Flanders,  a  province  with  which 

OF  Louis,  Duke   England  enioyed  tlie  closest  trade  relations: 
OF  Orleans.  ^  j   j 


"  I  defy  you."  i 


and  in  1413,  as  the  Orleanists  were  gaining 

ground,  he  turned  for  aid  to  Henry  V.,  and 

was   ready  to   recognize   the   almost   obsolete   claims   of   the 

English  monarch s  to  the  crown  of  France. 

In  the  year  1415  Henry  landed  on  the 

coast    of    Normandy    with    a 

241.  Re-       force  consisting  of  6000 

newalof  the    nien  at  arms,  21,000  arch- 
Hundred  '       ' 
Years'  War   ©rs,   and   a   considerable 
(1415)           ^Q^iy    of    artillery.      He 
wasted  live  weeks  in  the  siege 
and  capture  of   the    unimpor- 
tant   town    of    Harfleur,    and 
lost    more    than    half   of    his 
troops     there    through    camp 
fever.      Then,    after     leaving 


Heraldic  Device  of  Johx,  Duke 
OF  Burgundy. 

"  I  liold  it  "  1  [i.e.  the  king  and 
kingdom]. 


1  These  mottoes  are  from  cou temporary  gamblers'  slang.  After  the  assassi- 
nation of  Louis  by  John.  Parisians  said,  "  Le  baton  cpineux  a  ete  racle  par  le 
rabot  ■'  (The  knotty  stick  has  been  smoothed  by  the  plane). 


KINQS 
KINQS   OF   FRANCE                  OF   ENGLAND 

ORLEANS- 
ARMAGNAC 

BURQUNOY'FLANDERS 

r                                                                                          \   r                                           w 

1328. 

I327-, 

; 

.PHILIP  VL. 


Lou  Is  III. _ 


V-EDWARD  III. 


—JOHN 


>- 


CHARLES  V. 


I377'< 


I'hilip  the  Bol(L=iIargaret 

l>ukc  uf  UuiKund;.  13CJ 
.  C»rrej«iit  uf  Eiuo,  ISW |-3;7S 


IsabeUa=>=  RICHARD  ii. 

-^niidaoa  of- 


I         Kd»ud  III. 


Louis 

Duke  uf  Urlcui*. 

1301 
Co-n«<!Ot  of  Fnoce.  1392 
-  MurlereU  bj  buxguDiUanjj  — 


Bernard 

Count  of  .Irtnifnatf  _ 

KUIol  h,  ButtualUiu, 

141li 


' CHARLES  VI. 


I399< 


I422< 


(.'liarh-s=  Anne  of  Armagnuc 

Duki  of  OrlMU, 


Catb 


\3< 


erlne=?=HENHy  v. 


John 

iiuk'  of  iirir.«<i 

lUfciil  of  Pras.x. 


John  tlu' 

Dukt  uUlutfunilj,  1404 

jOoTanor  of  Kln(ilun.  1418 

AnuilBatvl  b;  OilwuliU, 
141» 


rhllip  the  U(M)d 

_I>uk«  of  Uurnin.tj,  Ul»_ 


Humphrey 

l>uk«  of  ii\uucmitm 
Pruto-lut  of  IU>(tUil,  1 411 


-   CHARLES  VII. 

Cltnix-I  t;  J.UI  of  Vn,  Utt 


>--MENRr  VI. 


KIN(;S  OF  FIJANC'E 

(.VND  OF  KN(;i..VND) 

OURINQ  THE  HUNOBEO  YEARS' WAR 
Time  scale,  i1  years  to  one  Inch 


2-.il 


0-70 


DECADENCE   OF    FEUDALISM 


1200  men  for  the  garrison  of  the  place,  he  fonnd  himself  so 
much  weakened  that  he  could  not  hope  either  to  subdue  Nor- 
mandy or  to  capture  Paris;  so,  in  a  spirit  of  boyish  bravado, 

he  determined    to   insult 


the  enemy  by  marching 
along  the  coast  of  France 
from  Harfleur  to  Calais. 
He  was  obliged  to  turn 
inland  along  the  Somme 
for  more  than  fifty  miles, 
in  order  to  reach  a  ford, 
and  then  found  his  march 
barred    at    Agincourt    by 


Route  of  Henry  V.,  1415. 


an  Orleanist  army  of  more  than  three  times  his  own  force,  and 

could  not  escape  a  combat. 

This  battle  of  Agincourt,  October  5,  1415,  was  essentially  a 

repetition  of  the  brilliant  events  at  Crecy  and  Poitiers,  and  its 

242.  Battle   results   were  no   more  far-reaching.      The  Constable  of 

of  A-gm-         Pi'ance,  three    dukes,  seven    counts,  and    ninety  barons 
court     (Oct.  '  '  T  J 

5,  1415)  were  killed,  and  fifteen  hundred  prisoners  of  rank,  includ- 
ing the  dukes  of  Orleans  and  of  Bourbon,  were  taken  ;  while  of 
common  soldiers  more  were  slain  than  the  entire  English  army 
numbered.  The  English  lost  only 
two  peers  of  note,  and  only  six- 
teen hundred  of  the  soldiery ;  but 
Henry's  forces  were  so  scanty  and 
so  much  exhausted  by  the  strain  of 
the  campaign  that  he  was  unable 
to  reap  any  fruits  from  this  victory, 
and  felt  compelled  to  proceed  to 
Calais,  and  thence  to  England. 

While  Henry  was  carrying  on  a  second  invasion,  four  years 
later,  the  Dauphin  caused  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  to  be  assas- 
sinated.    The  enraged  Burgundians  vowed  that  the  Dauphin 


Agincourt 


'i\'0}jrli>- 


ENC-'   ,^l«sisoncelles 


Battle  of  Agincourt. 


FDKEIGX    WAUS    r.NDKH    LANCAS  IKl  A  N    K1N(,S         2l':J 

should  never  reii^n   in    France,  aecepted   the  Enijlish   as   sov- 
ereigns over  all  their  possessions  in  the  north  oi'  France,  and 
in  1420  nej,'otiuted  the  treaty  of  Troyes,  by  which  Henry      243    Hen- 
was  reco>rnized  as  rej/ent  of  France,  with  the  right  of  sue-       ^y  ^  ™*^' 

....  riage  and 

cession  to  the  throne  npon  the  death  of  the  imbecile  king ;  death 

and  the  interests  of  the  French  and  English  royal  fani-  ^1420  1422 
ilies  were  harmonized  by  the  n\arriage  of  Henry  to  the 
Dauphin's  sister  Catherine.  The  Orleanists  refused  to  give 
up  the  struggle ;  and  Henry,  while  attempting  to  conquer  a 
portion  of  the  territory  south  of  the  Loire,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
unhealthful  conditions  of  camp  life  in  a  rainy  season.  His 
death  in  1 1'Jl*.  when  only  thirty-five  years  old,  left  France  and 
England  exposed  to  the  evils  of  government  by  a  regency,  for 
his  son  and  heir  was  a  weakly  infant,  less  than  one  year  old. 

This  son,  Henry  VI.,  was  promptly  proclaimed  king  of  France 
at  Varis,   but  the  south  adhered  to  the  i)arty  of  the  former 
Dauphin,  now  King  Charles  YII.     While  one  of  Henry's   ^^  Minor- 
uncles  (the  Duke  of  Gloucester)  was  made  Protector  in    ity  of  Henry 
England,  another  (the  Duke  of  Bedford)  was  made  Regent 
in  France.     The  only  important  position  held  by  the  Orleanists 
north  of  the  Loire  was  the  city  of  Orleans,  and  to  this  Bedford 
laid  vigorous  siege  in  142S.     Now  appeared  a  new  factor  in  the 
contest  in  the  person  of  a  jteasant  maiden  frum  ])omr('iiiy,  in 
the  district  of  Lorraine. 

This  maiden,  Jeanne  d'.Vrc   (Joan  of  .\rcj,  believed  her.self 
(commissioned  by  God  to  reconcile  the  warring  factions,  and  to 
rouse  the  patriotism  of  the  monarch  and  his  officers  by  her   245   Career 
own  example.    She  tlierefore  went  to  the  king  and  asked       "     d  Arc 
for  authority  to  raise  the  siege  of  Orlean.s,  declaring  that  (1429  1431) 
God  would  guide  her  efforts  to  save  her  country  from  an  alien 
tyranny,  and  w(j\ild  ultimately  enable  her  to  crown  him,  as  all 
his  ancestors  had  been  ciowned.  in  the  cathedral  at  Rheims  — 
now  in  the  heart  of  tlie  territory  lield  by  the  English.     She 
proceeded  to  Orleans  with  an  army  in  .Vpril,  M'J\K  inspired  the 


224 


DECADENCE    OF   FEUDALISM 


garrison  with  her  own 
enthusiasm,  dispersed 
the  English  forces 
investing  that  city, 
routed  the  enemy  in 
battle  after  battle, 
and  in  twelve  weeks 
fulfilled  her  premise 
by  conducting  Charles 
in  state  to  be  crowned 
at  Kheims.  The  Eng- 
lish power  in  France 
seemed  doomed;  but, 
in  the  spring  of  1481, 
Jeanne  was  taken 
prisoner  l)y  the  Bur- 
gundians.  Her  cap- 
tors sold  her  into  the 
hands  of  the  English ; 

and  after  an  ecclesias- 

» 
tical  trial  before  the 

Bishop  of  Beauvais,  a 

tool    of   the   English, 

she    was    burned    to 

death  as  a  witch  (May 

30,  1431). 

Meanwhile  England  was  split  into  factions  by  the  relatives 

of  the  young  king.     G-louoester,  the  protector,  was  at  swords' 

246.  End  of   points  with  his  uncle  Henry  Beaufort,  a  cardinal  of  the 

j^^i^w"'    ,   church  and   the  richest   man  in  England.      Gloucester 
dred  Years'  ° 

War  (1453)  swayed  the  masses;  Beaufort  ruled  the  King's  Council: 
Gloucester  wanted  to  continue  the  French  war;  Beaufort 
pointed  out  the  folly  of  trying  to  force  foreign  rule  upon  a 
great  nation  like  France.     Events  proved  that  he  was  right, 


Carbon  hij  Broun  .{■  Co. 

Jeanne  d'Arc  at  the  Altar  of  St. 

Catherine. 

Painting  by  G.  Doyen. 


FoREKiN    WAKS    INDKi;    I.ANCAS  riHAN    KINGS        '21') 

for  after  the  death  of  Jeanne  (VArc  the  English  steadily  lost 
grounil.  In  14.');")  Bedford  died ;  the  Hurgundians  then  made 
peace  with  the  Orleanists ;  and  the  English  were  soon  driven 
into  Calais  in  the  north,  and  into  Bordeanx  and  Bayonne  iu 
the  south. 

With  eveiy  failure  of  the  English  arms,  Parliament  gi"ew 
more  unwilling  to  vote  supplies  for  the  war,  and  finally 
Beaufort's  counsels  prevailed.  In  1444  a  truce  was  agreed 
upon,  and  a  luarriage  was  negotiated  between  the  king 
(now  of  full  age)  antl  Margaret  of  Anjou,  niece  of  the  French 
monarch.  There  was  desultory  fighting  for  a  few  years  more; 
and  then,  in  14o.*i,  after  England  had  lost  all  her  territory  in 
France  except  Calais,  the  Hundred  Years'  War  came  to  an 
inglorious  end.  No  formal  treaty  of  peace  was  signed,  and  the 
English  monarchs  continued  to  style  themselves  kings  of 
France  until  1801,  liut  the  two  countries  were  thenceforth 
wholly  separate. 

During  the  Lancastrian  period,  the  powers  of   Parliament 
were  both  strengthened  and  enlarged.      In   1407   Henry  1\'. 
agreed  that  all  grants  of  money  should  originate  in  the        247.  In- 
lower  house,  thereby  giving  to  the  C(uninons  control  of  creased 
•'   '^         "                                                                    powers  of 

the  public  purse.  At  the  same  time  he  ackiu>wledged  Parliament 
the  absolute  freedom  of  both  houses  to  discuss  the  various 
details  of  these  grants,  and  to  stipulate  for  what  they  should 
be  used.  Three  times  in  this  reign  Parliament  interfered  with 
the  king's  choice  of  his  council,  ami  on  one  occa.sion  it  caused 
the  removal  of  certain  objectionable  councilors  —  a  long  step 
toward  making  the  king's  ministers  responsible  to  Parlia- 
ment. It  often  happened  that  after  Parliament  had  peti- 
tioned the  king  that  certain  laws  might  be  enacted  and  his 
assent  hail  l)epn  given,  his  crafty  ministers  framed  a  statute 
which  appeared  to  embody  the  substance  of  the  petition,  but 
was  really  of  a  quite  different  purport.  Therefore  in  1414  the 
king  was  made  to  agree  that  "  fro  hensforth  no  thyng  be  en- 


226  DECADENCE   OF   FEUDALISM 

acted  to  the  Peticioiis  of  his  Commune  that  be  contrarie  to  thir 
askyug."  The  increased  importance  of  Parliament  is  further 
shown  by  the  fact  that  after  1430  only  those  who  possessed 
freehold  property  worth  40  shillings  a  year  were  allowed  to 
vote  for  knights  of  the  shire. 


The  Lancastrian  kings  were  led  by  the  weakness  of  their 
position  to  make   many  concessions  to  Parliament,  and  they 
248    Sum-     ti'ied  to  interest  the  more  restless  of  their  subjects  in 
mary  foreign  conquest,  for  which  France  seemed  the  best  op- 

portunity. The  military  genius  of  Henry  V.,  as  displayed  at 
Agincourt,  raised  high  hopes  of  gaining  the  crown  of  France ; 
but  the  w^eakness  of  his  claims  to  the  throne,  the  unconquer- 
able hatred  of  the  French  for  the  English,  the  patriotic  move- 
ment headed  by  Jeanne  d'Arc,  and  the  dissensions  at  home 
throughout  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  bore  their  inevitable  fruits 
of  disaster  and  final  failure.  Since  the  long-drawn-out  French 
wars  called  for  enoi'mous  expenditures  of  money,  Parliament 
took  increased  control  over  the  national  finances. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)   Was  there  any  reason  why  Henry  IV.  should  be  unwilling 

topics  ^^  ransom   Sir  Edmund  Mortimer  ?      (2)   Show  that  Henry  V., 

"  although  lawful  monarch  of  P^ngland,  had  no  right  to  the  throne  of 
France.  (3)  Can  you  account  for  the  small  fatality  among  the 
English  soldiers  at  Agincourt  ?  (4)  Trace  the  history  of  the  vari- 
ous English  regencies  up  to  this  time.  (5)  Can  you  account  for 
the  ease  with  which  the  English  were  beaten  by  Jeanne  d'Arc  ? 
(6)  "Why  should  the  Commons  insist  that  money  bills  should 
originate  in  the  lower  house  ?  ■  (7)  Why  did  the  Lords  willingly 
concede  this  point  ?  (8)  On  what  grounds  ought  the  county  fran- 
chise to  be  restricted  to  freeholders  ?  (9)  Was  it  well  or  ill  for 
the  English  nation  to  give  up  urging  claims  to  the  throne  of 
France  ?  (10)  Compare  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Troyes  with 
those  of  the  treaty  of  Wallingford.  (11)  Review  in  detail  the 
territorial  relations  of  England  and  France  from  the  personal 
union   of   England   and   Normandy  in    1066.    (12)    Compare   the 


FOREIGN    WARS    INDKK    I.ANCASIKIAN    KlNiiS        liJT 

French  territory  held  by  Kiiiji  Henry  II.  witli  tlial  litld  by  King 
Henry  V.  after  tlie  treaty  of  Troyes. 

(l.S)  Sliakespeari's  portrait  of  Henry  V.  as  I'rince  of  Wales.  Search 
(14)  Drayton's  ballad  of  J(/(//coMr<.  (15)  Jeanne  d'Arc  and  her  ^°P'<=8 
inspired  mission.  (1(>)  The  present  restrictions  on  the  county 
franchise  in  Kngland.  (17)  Construct  a  map  of  all  the  regions  on 
the  Continent  occupied  by  the  Enirlish  in  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
(18)  Methods  of  lighting  during  the  French  wans.  (10)  Tlie  trial 
of  Jeanne  d'Arc.     (20)  The  wealth  of  Flanders. 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.   142,  IdO  ;  Gardiner,   SiIukiI  Atlas,  maps  1<>,  17.    (Jeography 
U) ;  Poole,  Iliatoriral  Athrs,  map  xx.  ;  Reich,  Xiw  Stiidcuta''  Atlas. 
ma|)  1"). 

Bright,  lliston/  <>/  Etxjlund.  I.  •J7'i-:;i<>  ;  Gardiner,  Student's 
History,  chs.  xix.  xx.  ;  {{ansome.  Advauri'tl  Ifistur;/,  2W-:V,]i],  3.37- 
.".39;  Green,  Short  History,  2ii4-28] ,  — History  of  the  Kiuflish 
Piijph,  bk.  iv..  chs.  v.  vi.  ;  Gardiner,  Houses  of  Lancaster  and 
York  ;  Montagne,  Constitutional  History,  81-80  ;  Taswed-Lang- 
mead,  Cunstitutionul  History,  2o8-21Hi  ;  Wakeman  and  Hassall, 
Essays  Introdurtory  to  Enylish  Cnnstitxtiunal  History,  no.  v.  ; 
Brewer,  Student's  Hume.  eh.  xi.  ;  Lingani,  History  nf  Eiiylaud, 
III.  chs.  ii.-iv.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  Enyland.  280-324  ; 
Ramsay,  Lnmaster  and  York,  I.,  II.  ch.s.  i.-viii.  ;  Wylie,  Enyland 
under  Hinry  IV.  ;  Bradley,  Otren  (Hendirr  ;  Cluirch,  Henry  V.  ; 
Kini;sford,  Henry  V.  ;  Edwards,  Wales,  201)-2!H  ;  Lang,  History 
of  Srotland,  I.  280-:3()8  ;  Creasy,  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles,  cli.  ix.  ; 
Oliphant,  Jeanne  d'Arc  ;  Lowell,  Joan  of  Arc.  See  New  England 
History  Teachers'  As.soclalion,  Sytlahtts.  245. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  104-125;  Colby. 
Selertiitns  from  the  Sources,  nos.  4-'{-45  ;  Hill.  Liherty  Documents. 
ch.  V.  ;  Durham.  Enylish  History  from  (hu'yinal  Sources,  l-UU  ; 
Gee  and  Hardy,  /)ocuments  of  Church  History,  nos.  xl.-xlii. 

Bates  and  Coman.  Enylish  History  tolil  l,y  Enylish  Poets,  157- 
197  ;  Clemens,  personal  llmdlictiinis  of  Joan  of  Arc  ;  Henty, 
liidh  Siiles  the  Border,  (i.  1'.  K.  .lames,  Ayiiicourt  :  Manniui:.  .1 
Xoble  I*ur)>ose  ;  Scott,  The  Fair  Maid  of  J'l  rth  ;  Shakespt  are, 
Kiny  Henry  IV'.,  —  Kiny  Henry  V.,  —  Kiny  Henry  VI..  I'ari  I.  ; 
Taylor.  Jeanne  d'Arc  ;    Yonge,  The  L'ayed  Liun. 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


EDWARD  lll.cr,  10 


Blanche^ 

of  Lancaster 


Philippa  =i;am.und.MoTtinier 

Earl  of  llarch 


rCDJohnof  Gaunt(3)  = 

Buke  of  Lancaster 


=Katheriiie  Swynford 


John  Beaufort 

Earl  of  Somerset  — 


Henry  Beaufort 

Bishop  of  Winchester 
Cardlnnl 


HENRY  IV. 


Joan  Beaufort= 

m.  Ralph  de  Neville 
(bee  opposite  page) 


Roger  Mortimer 

Zarl  of  March 


►35 


John 

Duke  of  Bedford 
d.  1435 


Humphrey 

Duke  of  Gloucester 
d.  144<; 


HENRY  V.= 


Kdmund  Aii'iie 

Mortimer         Mortimer 

£arl  of  JIarcb  m.  Kichard, 

d.  1129  _  Earl  of  Cambridge  _ 

(See  opposite  page) 


=(I)  Catherine C3)= 

of  France 


Owen  Tudor 

Bebeailed  after 

Mortimer's  Cross, 

H61 


John  Beaufort 

1st  Duke  of  Somerset 
Lieut.  Gen'l  of  France 


Edmund  Beaufort 

2nd  Duke  of  Somerset 

Killed  at  St-Albans, 

1455 


>36- 


-HENRY  VI. 

m. Margaret  uf.Anjoi 


Ed  m  u  n  d  ^  Ma  rga  ret 
Tudor        Beaufort 

Earl  of  Richii 


Hemy  Beaufort 

■ird  Duke  of  Somerset 

Beheaded  at  Hexham 

U04 


Edmund  Beaufort 

4th  Duke  of  Somerset 

Beheaded  at  Tewkesbuir, 

lill 


Anne  Xeville  (1)  =Ed\vard 

Prince  of  Wales 
Killed  at  Tewkesburv, 

i4n '— 


John  Beaufort 

Killed  at  leirkesbury. 
14T1 


-  Henry  VI.  reigned  C  months  1470-1471 


Earl  of  Stafford=  Margaret 
Beaufort 


Henry  Staflbrd 

Duke  of  Buckingham 
Beheaded,  1483 


1483^38- 
I485J 


HENRY  VII.  (p. 203)= 


EARLS  OF  MARCH 


LANCASTER 


338 


LANCASTER  AND  YORK 

Tlnu-  sciile.  16-hi  yi-urs  to  one  liicU 


£dmund 

Puke  of  York 


=Balph  de  Neville 

C^  of  Wt^tmorcUaJ 


iUcliurd  E"!  of  c«niiTi(ije===Anne  Morllmer 

UcbeaJal.  H16                          I)t.<.ctiduit  uf  Uiioel, 
Imk*  of  Cuu«oc« 
I8c«  opptKlu  Tf) 


tiirl  of  Salisbury 


Richard  Neville=  Alice  of  Salisbury 

Eul  uf  iMlbburr 


Cicely  Neville: 


Earl  of  War^vick 

Qoicnuruf  llcnrr  VI. 


=  Richard 

Ihike  of  York 
Plotvrtor  qCJIpfl^iid 

Ma4.  I'M 

Killed  It  Wikeadd, 

1400 


Richard  Nfville  = 

t./l  ..f  » inrl^k 
"Ttx  Kit><  >l>kri" 

Sii|ip<«t«i  York.  nw-n:o 

'  3u(>|<irtc-l  Uifutar,  IKl'-li;! 
KUlajM  Uuixt,  Uri 


An  tie  of 
Warwick 


SALISBURY  AND  WARWICK 


OkOUCESTER 


229 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


DYNASTIC    WARS   OF   YORK   AND   LANCASTER   (1447-1485) 

After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  and  of  Cardinal 
249.  Rival-   Keaiifort  in  1447,  the  factional  strife  in  England  became 
and^Suffolk   ^^^'^  ^i^^®^'-     Henry  VI.  was  weak,  timid,  and  inefficient. 
Richard,  Duke  of  York,  who  succeeded  Gloucester  as  heir 
presumptive  to  the  throne,  believed  that  his  position  and  abili- 
ties entitled  him  to  a 
principal  share  in  the 
king's  counsels ;    but 
Henry    chose   to    be 
guided  by  his  personal 
friend,    the    Earl    of 
Suffolk.     Suffolk's  in- 
glorious   truces    and 
losses  of  territory  in 
France  during  the  last 
years  of  the  French 
war  created  great  dis- 
content    among    the 
masses,    and    turned 
their    hearts    toward 
his     brilliant     rival, 
whom    he    had    sent 
into  comparative  ob- 
,    „,         „,  scuritv  as  Lieutenant 

(   AKDINAI,    HeATIFORT  S    lOMB,    WiNCHKSTER  "^ 

Cathedral.  of  Ireland. 

230 


DYNASriC    \VAKS   OF    VOIJK    AND    LANCASIKK        I'M 

Suffolk   was  powerless   to   preserve   order  at  Iiome,  where 
agrarian  troubles   were   daily   increasing.      Farming  had  bo- 
come  less  profitable  than  sheej)  raising  (§  231);  and  the      250    Mi 
grasping  lords  of   the  manor  insisted  on  inclosing  for         govem- 
their  private  use  the  common  grazing  lands  on  which   ™*°suffofk 
by  immemorial  custom  all  the  tenants  had  hitherto  pas-  U447-1450> 
tured  their  stock.      The  greater  barons  maintained  hordes  of 
armed   retainers  —  generally   soldiers    trained   to   brigandage 
in  the  French  wars  —  and  renewed  the  lawlessness  of  Stephen's 
reign,  robbing  their  weaker  neighbors  of  goods,  cattle,  and 
even  whole  manors.     AVithin   the   century,  a   dozen   statutes 
were  passed  to  abate  the  evils  of  "  livery  and  maintenance," 
that  is,  the  keeping  up  of  bands  of  livieried  ruffians  who  terror- 
ized alike  the  i)arliamentary  electors  and  the  judges  and  juries 
of  the  law  courts;  but  under  such  a  minister  as  Suffolk  the 
laws  were  powerles.s.      For  a  time  he   gained  sup})ortt'rs  by 
making   generous   grants  to  court   favorites  from  the  crown 
estates,  but  in  1450  he  was  impeached,  banished,  and  murdered 
on  his  way  to  France. 

Since  Suffolk's  friends  remained  in  power,  riots  immediately 

broke  out  in  Middlesex,  Suffolk,  Norfolk,  and  Kent.     An  Irish 

adventurer  named  Jack  Cade   moved   on  London  with   „,. 

251.   Cades 
thirty  thousand  men  ;  published  a  manifesto  charging  upon       Rebellion 

the  king's  ministers  excessive  taxation,  exclusion  of  the   ''^^^'  ^*^^' 

lords  of  royal  blood  from  a  share  in  tlie  government,  promotion 

of  upstarts,  abuse  of  "purveyance,"  or  right  to  seize  g<Kxls  for 

the  royal  household,  false  claims  to  laud,  trea.sonable  loss  of 

France,  t'xtortion,  and  undue  interference  with  elections,  from 

all  of  which  the  country  was  suffering;    and  demanded   the 

restoration  of  the  Duke  of  Yovk  to  power.     The  rebels  were 

tricked  into  dispersing,  and  Cade  was  killed,  but  the  popular 

demand  for  reform  could  not  be  stilled. 

Edmund,  Duke  of  Somerset,  nephew  of  Cardinal   Beaufort, 

succeeded  Suffolk  as  the  rival  of  Richard  of  Yovk.     He  had 


ENGLAND 

Durins  the  "Wars  of  The  Roses 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


DistrirtB  where  neither  partj  predominated 
DistrictB  held  by  members  of  the 


K-^-"'"^' 


4        Lon^'itude  Weet     2        from  Greenwich     0  East 

233 


DYNASTIC    WAHS    <>F    V(»KK    AND    LANCASIKK         233 

the  support  of  the  queen,  M;irj,'aret  of  Anjuu,  who  l»flieved 

tliat  Vork  was  plotting  to  secure  the  succession  to  the  throne. 

A  son,  Edward,  was  born  to  her  in  145.3  ;  but  a  few  weeks        252    Ri- 

earlier   Henrv   had    been    seized   with   an    illness   which         valry  of 

York  and 
result»*d  in  temporary   idioev,  and   Tarliajneut,  ignoring       Somerset 

Margaret's  wishes,  appointed  the  Duke  of  York  Protector  <1450-1455> 
and  Defender  of  the  Keahn.  On  the  king's  recovery,  a  few 
weeks  later,  he  restored  the  Beaufort  faction  to  power ;  and 
Vork,  claiming  that  his  legal  rights  and  even  his  i)ersonal 
safety  were  eudangereil,  rallied  his  followers  at  Leicester  and 
marched  toward  London.  He  was  met  by  the  royal  army  at 
St.  Albans,  and  in  the  battle  that  followed  (May  1455)  Edmund 
of  Somerset  was  slain,  the  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  York 
became  head  of  the  King's  Council. 

The  battle  of  St.  Albans  marks  the  beginning  of  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses,  so  called  from  the  badges  used  by  the  contest- 
ants —  a  white  rose  for  York  and  a  red  rose  for  Somerset.      253.  First 

At  first  the  issue  was  simply  whether  Richard,  Duke  of  i?^"®  ^  *^® 

'■   "^  Wars  of  the 

"^'ork  (who  might  at  any  time  become  heir  to  the  throne),  Koses 

or  Henry,   the   new   Duke   of   Somerset  (who   belonged   to  a 

younger  branch  of  the  Lancastrian  family),  should  control  the 

l)rincipal  offices  of  state  luuler  the  king.     York  claimed  that 

he  should    1k^  ])laced  in  a  position  to  guard  his  pros})ective 

rights;  Mai-garet  and  Somerset  claimed  that  this  would  expose 

the  reigning  family  to  intrigue.     The  issue  was  complicated 

becau.se   the   king  was   incompetent  to  choose  wi.se  advisers, 

])ecau.se  York  was  the  ablest  and  most  popular  statesman  in  the 

kingdom,  and  Wecau.se  his  claim  to  the  throne  wa,s  by  the  strict 

laws  of   hereditary  succession  l»etter  than  the  king's  —  all  of 

which  made  the  susjiicions  of  the  queen  the  more  reasonable. 

In  less  than  a  year  after  St.  Albans,  Margaret  induced  her 

husband  to  dismiss  York  from  office,  and  for  the  next     254    First 

three  years  the  two  parties  maintained  an  armed   neu-  stage  of  the 

trality,  each  warily  guarding  against  a  sudden  attack.     At   (1455-1460; 


234 


DECADENCE    OF    FEUDALISM 


Ship,  Time  of  Edward  IV. 
From  a  MS.  Life  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick. 


length  Queen  Margaret,  chafing  under  the  uncertainties  of  the 
situation,   attacked  the  Yorkist  lords  by  bringing    a   bill  of 

attainder  against  them 
in  Parliament,  and  their 
lives  and  estates  were 
declaredforfeited.  York, 
his  brother-in-law  the 
Earl  of  Salisbury,  and 
his  nephew  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  who  were  all 
at  Calais,  promptly  set 
sail  for  London,  and, 
gaining  the  support  of 
its  citizens,  advanced  to 
Northampton  with  60,000  men.  There  the  Lancastrians  were 
routed  in  July,  1460 ;  King  Henry  was  again  taken  prisoner, 
and  jNIargaret  fled  to  Scotland,  with  her  son. 

The  issue  was  now  changed  ;  for  as  soon  as  Parliament  could 

be  assembled,  a  messenger  from  the  Duke  of  York  laid  before 

255.  Death  the  House  of  Lords  his  formal  claim  to  the  crown,  as 

of  YoSf ''^     *^^®  nearest  heir  of  Edward  HI.     The  Lords  replied  that 

(1460)  the   acts   of   Parliament   by  which  the  succession   had 

been  settled  upon  the  Lancastrians  were  of  such  "  authority 

as  to  defeat  any  manner  of  title  made  to  any  person,"  and 

that   they    were    bound    by    repeated   oaths    of   allegiance  to 

Henry  VI.      However,  they   proposed  as  a  compromise  that 

Henry   should   '•  keep  the  crown  and   his  estate  and  dignity 

royal   during   his   life,   and  the  said  duke   and   his   heirs    to 

succeed  'him  in  the  same,"  the  duke  meanwhile  to  be  made 

Protector,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  Earl  of  Chester. 

To  this  the  king,  "inspired  with  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  by  good  and  sad  deliberation  and  advice,"  gave  his 
assent ;  but  Margaret,  desperately  fighting  for  her  son's  inherit- 
ance, succeeded  in  rallying  the  north  of  England  to  his  cause. 


DYNASTIC    WARS   OF    YORK    AND    LAXCASTKU       235 

Tlie  iirotector,  lulvaiuing  northward  to  crush  out  the  clisafEec- 
tion,  met  the  Lancastrian  forces  at  Waketiekl,  December  29, 
1  U)0,  and  was  totally  defeated  and  slain.  His  younger  son 
Ednunul  and  the  Karl  of  Salisbury  were  murdered,  and  their 
bodies  were  mutilated  by  >rargaret's  commanders.  Thenceforth 
the  struggle  became  a  mere  blood  feud. 

Edward,  the  eldest  son  of  the  protector,  was  at  this  time  in 
\N'ales,  where  he  soon  defeated  the  forces   raised   to  support 
Margaret's  cause.     He  then  manhed  to  London,  while   256    Acces- 
W'arwick  engaged  the  attention  of  Margaret's  forces  in     £^^^ard  of 
the  second  battle  of  St.  Albans.     He  was  enthusiastically   York  U461) 
received  by  the  citizens  of  the  metropolis,  and  was  immediately 
proclaimed  king,  as  Edward  IV.  :  but  his  crown  was  yet  to  be 
won,  and  he  moved   north   to  attack  Margaret,  gathering  re- 
cruits as  he  marched. 

The  decisive  contest,  which  took  place  at  Towton,  March  29, 
1  K')l.  was  waged  for  hours  in  the  midst  of  a  fierce  snowstorm. 
The  Yorkists,  by  furious  assaults,  forced  the  higher  position 
(K'cupied  by  the  Lanca.strians,  and  after  ten  hours  of  fighting 
drove  their  entire  army  of  60,000  men  into  rout.  The  bodies 
of  37,000  killed  were  buried  on  the  battlefield  ;  five  peers 
were  slain  in  the  battle,  and  two  earls  were  captured  and 
lieheaded.  Except  the  queen  and  her  son,  who  fied  to  Scot- 
land, the  Duke  of  Somerset  was  the  only  Lancastrian  of  impor- 
tance to  escape. 

Throughout  the  contest  thus  far  the  principal  supporter  of 
the  Yorkist  cause  had  been  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of  Warwick  ; 
and  he  naturally  expected  to  shape  the  policy  of  the  new      257    Lan- 
king,  who  was  only  twenty  years  old.     In  14(>4,  however,         ^^fl^^^ 
Edward,  without  consulting  his  council,  made   a  hasty   (1464  1470 
marriage   with   a   widow.   Lady  Elizabeth  (Wootlville)  Grey, 
whose   family    Ix^came    his    chief    advLsers   and    the    recii>- 
ients  of  all  his  favors.     This  resulted  in  a  jealousy  between 
the  Woodvilles  and  the  Nevilles  sinular  to  that  between  the 


236 


DECADENCE   OF    FEUDALISM 


Somersets  and  the  Yorkists .  in  the  first  stage  of  the  wars. 
Still  further  discord  arose  out  of  Edward's  foreign  policy.  To 
please  London  and  the  commons  generally,  the  king  was 
determined  to  wed  his  sister  to  the  ruler  of  Burgundy,  the 
state  with  which  England  had  the  most  commerce;  Warwick, 
as  the  representative  of  ancient  aristocratic  traditions,  pre- 
ferred to  seek  for  her  a  French  alliance. 

Unable  to  dominate  the  king  whom  he  had  crowned,  War- 
wick married  his  elder  daughter  to  Edward's  brother  Clarence, 


\Vai;\\i<  K   (  Asri.K. 
Destroyed  iu  the  Barons'  wars.    Rebuilt  by  Edward  III.  aud  his  successors. 


and  then  induced  him  to  intrigue  for  the  throne ;  secretly  pro- 
moted insurrections  in  Yorkshire ;  and  finally,  when  exposed 
and  compelled  to  flee  to  France,  cast  in  his  lot  with  Margaret 
of  Anjou,  and  married  his  younger  daughter  to  her  son,  Ed- 
ward of  Lancaster.  Under  cover  of  the  Yorkshire  uprisings, 
the  allies  made  a  descent  upon  the  Devonshire  coast.  The 
midlands,  as  before,  adhered  to  Warwick ;  Edward,  unable  to 
brave  the  storm,  fled  to  the  protection  of  the  Duke  of   Bur- 


DVNASTK"    WAIJS    OK    Yi»i;K     AND    l.ANCASIKK        •_'•>! 

sjuiitlv  ;   aiiil    in   St'ptfiiiltfr,    M7<i.    Warwick    ii'1i1;uimI    on    the 

tliroiH'   Ht'iiry  \'I..  tlu'  kiiij,'  wlmiii   \iv  liatl  twici'  lu'cii   iiistru- 

iiit'Utal  ill  dei)osing. 

In  less  than  a  year,  Kdwartl  i>f  York,  assisted  by  the  l)uke 

i)t"  Burgundy,  appeared  on  the  coast  of  England  with  a  small 

anuv,  nroelainiing  that  he  came    merely  to  recover  his     „,„    _.     , 
-'    '  -^  *'  258    Final 

ancestral  domains.     The  negligence,  folly,  or  treachery       victory  of 

York  (1471) 
of  Warwick's  brother,  Lord  Montagu,  permitted  him  to  ^        ' 

advance  as  far  as  Leicester.  There,  throwing  off  all  disguise, 
he  proclaimed  himself  rightful  king  of  England.  Adherents 
tlocked  to  his  standard,  but  Warwick's  forces  far  outnumbered 
his  when  they  met  at  lUirnet  (Ai)ril  4,  1471).  Edward  won 
the  victory,  nevertheless,  for  a  fog  created  confusion  in  the 
Lancastrian  raidis,  Clarence  i)layed  traitor  to  Warwick  and 
went  over  to  his  brother  with  all  his  forces,  and  the  great 
"  King-maker"  (as  Warwick  was  called)  was  slain  in  the  crisis 
of  the  battle.  Margaret,  arriving  from  France  too  late,  was  in- 
tercepted and  defeated  by  Edward  at  Tewkesbury  (May,  1471). 

Tlie  death  of  Queen  Margaret's  son,  Trince  Edward,  in  this 
battle  ended  the  direct  Lancastrian  line.  The  last  IJeaufort 
chief,  Edmund,  I)uke  of  Somerset,  was  ca|»turfd  and  executed, 
and  <^>ueen  Margaret  herself  was  taken  prisoner.  On  the  day 
of  Edward's  return  to  London  the  unfortunate  King  Henry  VI. 
died  in  the  Tower,  probably  munlercd  to  prevent  further  up- 
risings in  his  favor.  The  claims  of  the  Lancastrian  line  now 
j»assed  to  Henry  Tudor,  the  f(jurteen-year-old  son  of  ISLirgaret 
r.eaufort,  great-granddaughter  of  John  of  Gannt.  Mother  and 
son  fled  to  Hrittany,  and  for  twelve  years  Edward  1  V.  reigned 
undisputed  monarch. 

l>uring  this  period,  sloth  took  the  place  oi  Edward's  former 
energy   of  character,  and   his    security    made    him    indif-      259    Close 
fcrent  to  the    needs  or  the   wishes  of  the  nation.       The      jy  g  reiim 
wealth  gained   by   confiscating  the   property  of   ]..ancas-    (1471  1483) 
trians  made  extraordinary  ta.xation   unnecessary,  and   France 


238  DECADENCE   OF   FEUDALISM 

paid  him  enormous  subsidies  in  money  to  leave  the  Conti- 
nent alone.  These  subsidies  were  construed  by  the  king  of 
France  to  be  a  purchase  of  Edward's  neutrality  in  the  struggle 
between  France  and  Burgundy,  and  by  the  English  to  be 
tribute,  and  a  recognition  of  England's  real  right  to  the 
sovereignty  of  France.  With  these  resources,  increased  by  the 
"  benevolences "'  (gifts)  which  he  from  time  to  time  exacted 
from  his  wealthiest  subjects,  the  king  was  able  to  rule  without 
calling  a  Parliament  for  twelve  years,  and  he  thus  prepared 
the  way  for  a  period  of  absolute  government.  Near  the  end  of 
his  reign  Edward  suffered  from  ill  health,  and  the  conduct  of 
affairs  was  left  in  the  hands  of  his  brother,  Richard  of  Glouces- 
ter, and  his  adherent.  Lord  Hastings,  until  the  king's  death  in 
1483. 

Richard  of  Gloucester  was  an  able   soldier   and   a  capable 

administrator,   but   very  ambitions,  and   unscrupulous  in   the 

260    Reiffn   execution  of  his  designs.     Unlike  the  other  leaders   of 

of  Edward     the  period,  he  was  self-controlled,  cautious,  and  deliber- 
V.  (April  9-  .       ,  .       „  ,  .       .  .  -^ ,  1,      1  -1  1 

June  25  ^^^  in  the  pursuit  ot  his  aims.     Among  Edward  s  cliildren 

1483)  were  his  eldest  daughter  Elizabeth,  seventeen  years  old ; 

a  son  Edward,  of  twelve  years;  and  a  younger  son,  Richard, 
of  nine  years.  The  Woodvilles  hurriedly  conducted  Prince 
Edward  from  Wales  towards  London ;  but  they  were  met  by 
an  .armed  force  under  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  Prince  was 
seized  aud  imprisoned,  and  the  council,  under  the  influence  of 
Richard's  co-plotter.  Lord  Hastings,  declared  Gloucester  Pro- 
tector of  the  Realm. 

Richard  immediately  entered  upon  a  series  of  craft_v  in- 
trigues to  gain  absolute  power.  Two  of  the  Woodville  peers 
were  executed,  and  Hastings,  who  had  made  secret  overtures  to 
their  part}^,  was  killed  by  Richard's  orders.  Richard  invented 
a  preposterous  story  to  show  that  Edward  IV.'s  marriage  to 
Elizabeth  Woodville  was  illegal,  and  that  therefore  he  himself 
was  the  legal  heir  to  the  throne.    The  nobles  present  in  London 


DVNASriC    WAKS   Of    YoUK    AND    LANCASTEK       •2:>ll 


ilaretl    not   resist   liis  deinantl,   and    Kichanl.   accepting,'   tlioir 

"  petition  "  that  he  should  take  tlie  throne,  was  crounfd  on 

July  (J,  1483,  :is  Richard  111. 

Richard's   bloody    course    thus    tar    was    condoned    liy    his 

countrymen  as  being   perhai)S  necessary  to  his  own  eontinu- 

ance   in    power;    but    the    hearts    of    all    right-minded    261    Reign 

Englishmen  were  alienated  when,  soon   after   his   coro-     PL^'?^'}!!'^ 

"  '  III  1 1483- 

nation,  it  began  to  be  whispered  that  he  had  caused  the  1485) 

muriler  of  his  nephews,  who  were  confined  in  the  Tower.  This 
iniquity  brought  on  him  a  two  years'  strug- 
gle to  retain  the  throne.  Witliin  three 
months  he  had  to  face  a  conspiracy  which 
was  supported  by  the  Duke  of  Buckingham 
and  the  Woodvilles,  to  place  Henry  Tudor 
(§  258)  upon  the  throne;  but  his  prompt-  "S^=l" 
ness  thwarted  this  movement.  He  now 
tried  to  buy  the  favor  of  his  subjects  by 
good  government,  but  he  was  too  unpopu- 
lar. In  desjjeration  he  resorted  to  arbitrary 
taxation  in  order  to  raise  money  with  which 
to  bril)e  the  leaders  among  the  nobility  — 
for  none  served  him  save  for  profit.  After  ^kl^" 
the  death  of  his  first  wife  (1484),  he  even 
thought  of  marrying  his  own  niece,  Eliza- 
beth, in  order  to  remove  a  possible  rival ;  ^'^^v^^^'y'^'!^,,!^^^ 
but    meanwhile    Henry    Tudor   (who   also       Scrcoat. 

planned   to  marry  Elizabeth,   in   order  to   StaiHlingonliisJuMal.Iic 

device,  a  wild  lioar. 
combine  the  claims  of   Lanca.ster  and  of 

York)   prepared   for  another  attempt  to  overthrow   Richard. 

With  the  aid  of   maby  barons  of    France,  Henry  raised  a 

SJnall  force  of  mercenaries,  and.  accompanied  bv  the  re- 

•    •         1       ,  r     ,       T  262    The 

mainmg  leaders  of   the   Lancastrian  and    Woodville  fac-    Tudor  revo- 

tions,  landed  at    Milford   Haven,  June,   148;"),  rallied  to  ^"''^°° 

his  cause  the  ever  faithful  Welsh,  and  in  August  met  Rich- 

WAI.KKK  >*    V.Si,.     HIT.  \'i 


240  DECADENCE   OF   FEUDALISM 

arc!  in  the  closing  battle  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  on 
Bosworth  Field.  His  cause  appeared  hopeless  indeed,  as  he 
marshaled  his  5000  men  against  Richard's  army  of  14,000. 
His  hope  lay  in  the  detestation  in  which  all  men  held  the 
king — a  detestation  so  great  that  many  of  Richard's  forces 
refnsed  to  fight  at  all,  and  one  large  body  under  Lord  Stanley 
deserted  to  Henry's  side.  Richard  himself  fought  with  des- 
peration, but  was  cut  down  while  striving  to  force  his  way 
into  the  presence  of  his  rival ;  and  his  crown,  which  he  had 
worn  into  the  battle,  was  placed  by  Stanley  on  the  head  of 
Henry  Tudor. 

The  continuous  warfare  of  the  fifteenth  century  had  exerted 
a  bad  influence  iipon  English  life  and  character.    It  was  a  time 

.  ,    of  low  ideals  and  brutal  conduct.     The  church,  after  the 
263.    Social 
conditions      failure   of   the    Lollard   movement,    became   even   more 

(1400-1485)  ^yQj.i(3|y  a^ncl  unspiritual  than  before.  It  produced  great 
thinkers  (the  Schoolmen)  and  great  politicians,  but  not  great 
moral  teachers  or  pastors.  It  therefore  punished  false  dogma 
more  severely  than  vicious  conduct.  Under  Henry  lY.  and 
Henry  V.  the  Lollard  movement  was  practically  crushed  out 
by  imprisonments  and  burnings  at  the  stake,  then  first 
authorized  by  statute.  A  ruthless  clergy  meant  ruthless 
statesmen  —  but  these  often  lacked  the  decency  even  to  veil 
their  crimes  under  the  forms  of  law.  Richard  II.  caused  his 
uncle  to  be  murdered ;  Henry  IV.  killed  his  cousin ;  Henry 
V.  sent  his  father's  cousin  to  the  block;  Henry  YI.  condoned 
the  slaughter  of  mau}^  of  his  nearest  relatives ;  Edward  I Y. 
sacrificed  his  own  brother  Clarence ;  Richard  III.,  by  tra- 
dition the  arch-villain  among  English  monarchs,  merely  acted 
in  harmony  with  the  times  when  he  thrust  from  his  path 
in  swift  succession  Hastings,  Rivers  and  Grey  (the  two 
Woodville  leaders),  his  two  nephews,  and  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham. In  a  time  of  protracted  war,  human  life  becomes 
cheapened. 


DYNASTIC    WARS   OK   YORK    AM)    LANCASTER       241 


In   spite   of   the   turbulent  conditions,  the   century  saw  a 
steady  advance  in  commerce   and   manufactures.      Since   the 
fighting    was   done   by   retainers   of   the   noble   houses,      264    Eco- 
the  laborers,  artisans,  traders,  and  gentry  were  free  to         changes 
carry  on  their  ordinary  work.     Indeed,  the  demand  for  (1453  1485) 
military  weapons,  clothing,  and  supplies  stimulated  some  in- 
dustries;   and    since    general    political    control    rather   than 
territorial    conquest    or 
spoils  was  the  stake,  the 
larger  towns  and   cities 
rarely  suffered  from  siege 
or  pillage. 

It  was  in  this  period 
that  energetic  English 
merchants  broke  into  the 
monopoly  of  trade  on 
the  ('ontinent  hitherto 
enjoyed  by  the  Hanse- 
atic  League  as  middle- 
men, and  for  the  first 
time   established   direct 

trade  relations  with  Flanders,  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  and 
Prussia.  Fortuup  helped  those  who  thus  heljied  theuiselves. 
Vast  schools  of  herring  —  a  fish  never  seen  in  the  North  Sea 
dnring  the  fonrteenth  century  —  now  appt-ari'tl  in  the  waters 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  herfing  fishery  be- 
came one  of  the  most  important  of  English  irulustries,  fur- 
nishing employment  for  vast  numbers  of  ships,  fishermen, 
salters  and  packers,  coopers,  and  traders.  The  hardy  sea- 
manship developed  by  her  fishermen  was  no  small  factor  in 
England's  i>rogress  during  the  Tudor  period. 

Of  all  tlie  im[)orts  brought  over  seas  by  English  merchants 
during  this  i)eriod,  by  far  the  most  notable  was  the  j)rinting 
press   brouglit   from    Flanders    by   William   (*a.Kton    in    1476. 


Workmen  of  the  Fifteekth  Century. 

From  a  MS.  History  of  Noble  Hen  and 
Women. 


242  DECADENCE  OF  FEUDALISM 

Caxton  had  been  in  business  in  Bruges  for  thirty  years,  part 
of   the  time- as  governor  of   the   English  guild  of   merchant 

265.  Cax-  adventurers,  and  later  as  a  copyist  in  the  household  of 
duction  of  ^largaret,  Duchess  of  Burgundy,  sister  of  Edward  IV. 
printing  Becoming  interested  in  the  newly  invented  art  of  multi- 
plying books  by  printing,  he  published  a  few  books  at  Bruges, 
and  then  retiirned  to  England  and  set  up  his  press  in  a  shop 
adjoining  Westminster  Abbey.  In  the  next  fifteen  years  he 
published  nearly  a  hundred  volumes,  including  religious  books, 
poems,  tales  of  chivalry,  and  translations  from  classic  authors. 
It  was  Caxton  wlio  preserved  for  us  the  text  of  Chaucer's 
%vorks,  and  also  Malory's  Nohle  and  Joyous  History  of  King 
Arthur,  which  has  influenced  so  much  of  our  later  literature 
and  art.  By  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  were 
printing  presses  at  Oxford,  St.  Albans,  and  London  —  and  the 
gates  of  the  realm  of  letters  were  thrown  open  to  the  English 
people. 

By  the  long  series  of  struggles  extending   from  the  reign 
of  John  through  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  the  warring  factions 

266.  Sum-     of  the  English  nobility  destroyed  their  own  power  to  domi- 
™^^y  nate  the  sovereign  and  the  other  classes  of  the  people ; 

but  it  is  not  true,  as  is  often  stated,  that  the  House  of  Lords 
was  reduced  in  size.  Though  the  heads  of  many  noble  houses 
perished  in  battle,  or  on  the  block,  or  by  secret  murder,  their 
estates  and  titles  descended  to  collateral  heirs  or  were  trans- 
ferred to  other  holders,  so  that  only  one  peerage  was  actually 
extinguished  as  a  result  of  the  long  struggle.  Neither  is  it 
true  that  the  cost  of  these  wars  was  crushing  to  the  people ; 
for  after  every  fresh  contest  the  possessions  of  the  conquered 
served  to  enrich  the  victors.  While  the  front  of  the  stage 
was  held  by  bodies  of  professional  fighters,  in  the  background 
(especially  in  the  towns)  the  mass  of  the  people  continued  to 
pursue  the  arts  of  peace,  to  develop  industry  and  commerce. 


nVNASriC    WAKS    OF    YORK    AND    LANCASTER       243 


Nevertheless,  lout,'  before  the  batth^  of  Bosworth,  l^irjand 
had  become  weary  of  the  dispute  over  the  throne,  wt-ary  of 
bloody  battlefields  and 
bloodier  reprisals,  weary 
of  the  degenerate  feudal- 
ism that  made  such  con- 
tests possible.  When 
peace  finally  came,  it 
found  the  English  people 
ready  to  submit  to  any 
sovereign  who  would  rule 
with  some  regard  for 
their  interests,  without 
questioning  too  closely 
either  the  source  or  the  limits  of  his  power.  The  Wars  of  the 
Roses  were  at  last  ended,  and  with  them  passed  away  feudalism 
as  a  dominant  force  in  English  politics,  and  the  old  type  of 
warfare,  of  which  Richard's  last  charge  was  a  brilliant  ex- 
ample. With  the  reign  of  the  Tudors  begins  the  modern 
history  of  England. 


SlK.iii:    (ilN    UK   THK    FiFTKKNTH 

Ckntlky. 

From  u  MS.  Chronique  <l'Aitr/letern\  time 
of  Edward  IV. 


TOPICS 

(I)  With  tlic  aid  of  the  gfiiealojiical  table  on  p.  228.  show  exactly 
why  the  Heaufort.s  and  tlie  Tiulors  adhered  to  Henry  VI.  (2)  E.sti- 
mate  tlie  kind  of  strength  wliich  each  of  the.se  chieftains  could 
bring  to  his  cause.  (3)  Whicli  parly  hail  the  advantage  in  the 
location  of  its  territory?  (4)  How  far  were  York's  claims  justifi- 
able? (5)  Show  how  Warwick  acijuired  the  title  of  "the  King- 
maker." (0)  Compare  KdwanPs  inva.sion  in  1-471  with  that  of 
Henry  of  Lancaster  in  V-'M).  (7)  Do  youldaine  Margaret  of  .\njnu 
for  her  course?  («)  Wliy  did  the  comniercial  rlasses  favor  tiie 
Rurgundiaii  alliance?  (!»)  Why  was  it  that  hardly  a  hundred  nifu 
on  each  siih-  fell  at  Bosworth  Field  ?  (10)  Why  were  (isheries 
very  important  during  tlie  Middle  Ages? 

(II)  Jack    Cade's    Rebellion.     (12)    Shake.speare's   estimate  i.f 
Cade's  motives  and  ability  in  Hpiiiy  VI.,  Part  II.     (13)  Career  uf    ^^P'''" 
Charles  the  Bold,  of  Burgiuuly.     (14)  The  Princes  in  the  Tower. 

(15)    Shakespeare's    treatment    of    the    battle    of    Bosworth    in 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 


244 


DECADENCE    OF    FEUDALISM 


Richard  III.     (16)  Could   an   act  of   Parliament  make  a  king? 

(17)  Why  were  France   and    Burgundy  hostile   to   each   other  ? 

(18)  An  estimate  of  Richard  III. 

REFERENCES 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


See  map,  p.  232  ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  map  20  ;  Hughes. 
Geography  of  British  History,  109-179.  Keich,  Neiv  Students'' 
Atlas,  maps  10,  17,  18. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  I.  316-:J54  ;  Gardiner.  Stn(h)it''s 
History,  chs.  xxi.  xxii.  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  333-371  : 
Green,  Short  History,  281-301, —History  of  the  English  People, 
bk.  iv.  ch.  vi.  ;  Gairdner,  Houses' of  Lancaster  and  York, — His- 
tory of  Richard  III. ;  Cheyney,  Introduction  to  Industrial  and 
Social  History,  ch.  vi.  ;  Powell  and  Tout.  History  of  England,  I. 
321-348,  359-372  ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  chs.  xi.  xii. ;  Lingard, 
History  of  England,  III.  chs.  iv.-vii.  ;  Ramsay,  Lancaster  and 
York,  II.  chs.  ix.-xxxv.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  ch.  xvii.  ;  Edwards, 
Wales,  291-309 ;  Oman,  Warwick  the  Kingmaker ;  Cunningham, 
Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  409-450  ;  Rogers, 
Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages,  ch.  xii.  ;  Taswell-Langmead, 
Constitutional  History,  296-303  ;  Denton,  England  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century  ;  Kirk,  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy.  See  New  England 
History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  245-240. 

Adams  and  Stephens.  Select  Documents,  nos.  120-133  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  46-48  ;  Kendall,  Sourci-Book, 
ch.  vii.  ;  Durham,  English  History  from  Original  Sources,  102- 
127  ;  Lingelbach,  Merchant  Adventurers  of  England  (University  oi 
Pennsylvania  Reprints,  New  Series,  II.)  ;  Thompson,  Wars  of  York 
and  Lancaster ;  Gairdner,  The  Paston  Letters ;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  of  Church  History,  no.  xlv. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  198- 
230;  Bulwer,  The  Last  of  the  Barons  (Warwick);  Church,  The 
Chantry  Priest  of  Barnet ;  Henty,  A  March  on  London ;  Shake- 
speare, King  Henry  VI.,  Parts  II.  III.,  — King  Richard  III. ;  Steven- 
son, The  Black  Arrow. 


CHAPTER   XV IT. 

UELIGIOrs    RKNOI.r  1I(».\     I'NDKK    TIIK    KAKLY   TUDORS 

(148o-l.')47) 

FoK  liuuiy  gpiit'ratioii.s  forces  liad  Ix-eu  at  work  wliich  were 

to  transforiu   the  mediieval   into  the  laodeni  world.     During 

the   titteenth   centiuv,    improvements   in    tlie    mariner's     267.  Tran- 

cohiijass  and  the  astrohibe  made  navigation  a  more  e.\act         sition  to 
'  °  modem 

art,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  occupation  of  remote  history 

lands  by  the  more  vigorous  of  the  old  world  powers.  The 
u.se  of  gunpowder  in  war  made  almost  worthless  the  strength 
and  dexterity  on  which  the  feudal  warriors  relied,  and  trans- 
ferred the  .burden  of  war  from  the  ordinary  citizens  to  a  class 
of  professional  tigiiters.  Commerce  was  creating  the  wealth 
which  made  possible  a  leisure  class,  free  to  cultivate  their 
intellectual  and  lesthetic  tastes.  Schisms  among  the  rulers  of 
the  church,  and  errors  of  judgment  and  moral  shortcomings 
among  her  servants,  roused  independent  thought  about  re- 
ligious and  scientihc  teachings  previously  accepted  without 
question  as  matters  of  revelation.  Finally,  the  discovery  of 
the  art  of  printing  made  jwssible  that  general  diffusion  of 
knowledge  which,  more  than  anything  else,  marks  the  differ- 
ence between  modern  and  mediaeval  life. 

The  three  states  strong  enough  to  take  the  lead  under  the  new 
conditions  were  France,  Spain,  and  England.  (Jermany,  com- 
posed of  many  units  loosely  federated  under  the  Holy       268    The 

Roman  Empire,  ami  scven-d  by  the  Alps  from  Italv  (the  ■  freat 

-'  i  •    V  powers "  in 

center  of  mcdia'val  life),  had  lagged  behind  these  states  1485 

in  her  dcvt'lnpmont.     Franc*',  after  two  c»'nturies  of  arrested 

development,   began  to  make   rapid    progress  under  a  strong 

245 


246 


Till-:  r.AiJi.v  TiDdit.s  247 

niU'i-,  T.oiiis  XI.  (from  14<)1  to  1483;,  who  quelled  civil  strife 
and  strengtluMied  the  power  of  the  inouarch.  Spain,  fiirinerly 
divided  into  two  rival  kingdoms,  was  just  waking  into  national 
life  and  unity  under  the  guidance  of  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  and 
was  ready  to  assume  her  place  as  a  world  power  whenever  the 
current  of  European  trade  should  set  westward  instead  of  east- 
ward. England,  with  her  intelligent  population,  her  strong 
practical  constitution,  and  her  insular  position,  enjoyed  the 
advantages  of  both  her  rivals.  In  all  three  states,  the  mon- 
archs  were  enjoying  more  absolute  authority  than  any  me- 
diieval  king  could  boast,  because  they  did  not  have  to  rely 
on  arrogant  and  self-willed  barons  in  carrying  out  their  pur- 
poses. Hence  they  were  tempted  into  petty  wars  of  con(piest, 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  early  sixteenth  century. 

The  history  of  all  these  states  was  profoundly  affected  by 
the    great  religious    revolution    known   as   the    Keformation. 
which   tinallv  wrenched   the  majority  of   the   Teutonic 
peoples  of  northern  Europe  away  from  the  Roman  com-     of  the  Ref 
niunion.     Its  beginnings   can   be   traced   back   into   the 
fourteenth  century,  —  to  such  religious  movements  as  those  of 
Wyclif  (1. •524-1384)  in  England,  Huss  (1369-141;""))  in  Bohemia, 
and  Savonarola  (14")L'-1498)  in  Italy;  and  also  to  the  move- 
ment in  art  and  letters  known  as  the  Renaissance  (1300-1500;. 

Up  to  tlie  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  pursuit  of 
war  and  the  satisfaction  of  physical  needs  alisorbed  all  the 
energies  of  the  less  intellectual  classes ;  while  the  more  ^^ 

thoughtful  few,  impelled  by  the  conviction  that  the  desh  Kenais- 

and  the  spirit  wage  eternal  war,  devoted  themselves  wholly 
to  the  salvation  of  their  sin-stained  souls.  But  wilh  tiie  prog- 
ress of  civilization,  many  people  came  to  believe  that  God 
made  the  world  to  promote,  and  not  to  hinder,  man's  highest 
development,  and  that  to  study  its  laws  and  to  enjoy  its 
pleasures  were  both  permissible  and  profitable.  Italy  first  ex- 
hibited the  new  impiilse,  by  reviving  the  study  of  the  ancient 


248  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

literatures,  by  ciiltivatiug  the  forgotten  art  of  sculpture  and 
tlie  newer  art  of  painting,  by  developing  a  joyous  civic  life, 
and  by  fostering  the  beginning  of  scientific  investigation.  Its 
liberalizing  effect  is  seen  in  the  outspoken  criticism  of  the 
church  of  his  day  by  Dante  (1265-1321) ;  in  Petrarch's  return 
to  the  "  profane  "  writings  of  Homer  and  Virgil  (1304-1374)  ; 
in  the  patronage  of  arts,  letters,  and  science  by  the  Florentine 
family  of  the  Medici  (1389-1492).  The  classical  authors 
were  imitated  in  the  native  tongue ;  the  remains  of  ancient 
temples  were  studied,  and  a  new  style  of  architecture  (the 
Italian  Renaissance)  was  created  by  the  skillful  combination 
of  Greek  and  Eoman  forms ;  the  ancient  art  of  sculpture  was 
revived ;  and  the  new  art  of  painting  from  life,  -with  due  atten- 
tion to  perspective,  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in  an 
astonishingly  short  time.  The  names  of  Giotto,  Raphael,  and 
Michael  Angelo  are  sufficient  to  suggest  the  greatness  of  the 
Renaissance  impulse  in  Italy.  From  that  country  it  spread 
during  the  sixteenth  century  into  France,  Spain,  Germany, 
and  England,  where  it  followed  close  upon  the  restoration  of 
order  under  the  Tudors. 

Had  not  the  Renaissance  promoted  the  study  of  the  dead 

languages,  and  thus  led  individuals  to  interpret  the  Scriptures 

271.  The       by  the  light  of  their  ow^n  reason,  the  Reformation  might 

Renais-  perhaps   have   stopped    short   of   revolution ;    yet    some 

sance  and       ^  ^  ^  ^  -^ 

the  church     violent  wrench  w^as  needed   to  rid  the   church   of   her 

medifeval  notions.  She  still  clung  to  the  idea  that  govern- 
ment by  absolute  raonarchs  was  divinely  ordained,  and  that 
Popes  had  authority  over  all  monarchs.  Moreover,  the  Popes 
themselves,  by  their  activity  as  territorial  sovereigns  in  Italy, 
seemed  likely  to  forfeit  the  influence  which  belonged  to  them 
as  spiritual  "  vicars  of  God."  In  England,  where  the  national 
temper  was  one  of  independence  in  thought  and  action,  where 
the  Pope's  orders  had  been  repeatedly  set  at  defiance,  where 
the  financial  demands  of  Rome  roused  the  most  angry  resist- 


THK    KAKI.V    Tl'I)(il{S 


249 


ance,  the  people  were  alreaily  accustomed  to  distinguish 
between  Kuiiian  Catholicism  as  a  system  of  belief,  and  the 
Roman  Papacy  as  a  system  of  church  government.  Tliere- 
foie,  when  nionarchs  as  independent-minded  as  the  Tudors 
came  to  the  throne,  the  breach  with  Rome  might  easily  have 
been  predicted  in  advance. 


LoNKON    BltlDOE    (H«>M    THK    Soi'THWARK    End),    SIXTKKNTH    I'KNTCRV. 

Traitors'  heads  e.\i>ose<I  on  spikes  over  tlie  entrance. 

The  policy  of  Henry  VII.,  the  first  of  the  Tudor  line,  was 
determined    V)v  the  conditions  under  which  he  ascendrd  tlie 
throne.     To  strengthen  the  rights  of  his  descendants  tn    272    Policy 
the   crown,  he  wedded    Elizabeth    of  York.     To   sei-un-    ^^°    j^gj^ 
hinisidf    from  external   attack,  he  married  his  daughter  1509i 

.Margaret  to  the  king  of  Seotland,  James  IV.,  and  his  eldest  sou 
.Vrtliur  to  Catherine,  daugliter  of  Kerdinand  nf  .\r:tgon.  To 
make  himself  independent  nf  Parliament,  he  sought  by  every 
possible  means  to  increase  his  private  fortuiu*.  To  make  his 
government  popular  and  atld    to   its  stability,   he  encouraged 


250  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

maritime  enterprise  by  charters  to  mercantile  companies  and  to 
explorers,  and  by  commercial  treaties  with  Burgundy,  Den- 
mark, Venice,  Florence,  Spain,  and  other  states. 

From  the  first,  Henry  ruled  with  a  strong  hand.     Half  a 
dozen  Yorkist  conspiracies-  were  easily  suppressed,  one  after 

««o    «  another,  without  excessive  bloodshed.     In  one  of  these 

273.  Sup-  ' 

pression  of  an  impostor  named  Lambert  Simnel,  pretending  to  be 
rebellion  ^j^^  -g^^.j  ^^  Warwick  (see  table,  p.  229),  was  aided  by  Bur- 
gundy ;  in  another,  a  similar  impostor  named  Perkin  Warbeck, 
claiming  to  be  Richard  of  York,  was  supported  by  an  army 
from  Ireland;  but  neither  the  English  barons,  nor  the  turbu- 
lent Irish  clans,  nor  the  Scottish  raiders,  nor  the  insurgent 
Cornishmen,  who  at  various  times  tested  Henry's  strength, 
were  able  to  make  head  against  him. 

Henry  first  attacked   the  power  of   the  barons   by  forcing 

274.  In-  the  powerful  nobles  to  take  oath  not  to  maintain  bands 
crease  of  ^£  liveried  retainers,  and,  what  is  more,  compelling  them 
authority       to  keep  their  oaths.     The  Earl  of  Oxford,  who  had  aided 

him  at  Bosworth  Field,  presumed  upon,  his  position  to  make 
a  display  of  retainers  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  from  Henry. 
"  By  my  faith,  my  Lord,"  said  Henr^^  "  I  thank  you  for 
your  good  cheer,  but  I  may  not  endure  to  have  my  laws 
broken  in  my  sight.  IVIy  attorney  must  speak  with  you  ;  "  and 
Oxford  paid  a  fine  of  £10,000  for  his  pride.  In  order  to 
reach  offenders  too  powerful  to  dread  the  local  courts,  he 
created  a  special  court  (consisting  of  the  chancellor,  the 
treasurer,  the  keej^er  of  the  priv}^  seal,  and  other  members 
of  the  royal  council,  together  with  the  two  chief  justices) 
which  met  in  the  "  Star  Chamber,"  at  Westminster,  and  arbi- 
trarily punished  ''  murders,  robberies,  perjuries,  and  unsureties 
of  all  men  living,  in  as  full  measure  as  if  the  offenders  had 
been  convict  after  the  due  order  of  the  law." 

His  financial  agents,  Empson  and  Dudley,  successfully  en- 
forced claims  for  feudal  dues  long  since  grown  obsolete,  and. 


TIIK    EAHl.Y     rrDoRS 


251 


commerce 


tempted  by  tlie  sulnnissiveness  of  the  nation,  they  used  most 

unjust  nu'ans    to  enrich  tlie  king.     From  skillfully  numaged 

erown    denu'snes,    from    judicial    tines,    from    "benevolences" 

(§  259),  from  subsidies  for  his  neutrality  in  continental  wars, 

from  customs  duties,  Henry  amassed  a  personal  fortune  not  far 

from    t*L',(X)0,UUO.     ''The  king  of  England,"  said  a  German 

diplomat  at  Brussels,  '•  is  described  as  the  richest  lord  that  is 

now  known  in  the  world." 

Henry  VII.  was  esjjecially  strong  in  his  selection  of  advisers, 

and  with  his  reign  begins  a  series  of  statesmen  drawn  from  the 

ranks  of  the  commons,  and  diosen  for  their  ability  and     „„,    _^. 

''  275.  Stim- 

their  subserviency  to  the  crown.  ^Vith  their  aid  he  "was  ulation  of 
able  to  promote  widespread  prosperity.  Through  his 
encouragement  of  commerce,  the  customs  revenues  increased 
nearly  one  third  during  his 
reign,  liy  a  navigation  act 
which  stipulated  that  certain 
goods  should  be  imported  only 
in  the  tihips  of  his  subjects, 
he  largely  increased  England's 
shipijing.  He  finally  took 
away  from  the  foreign  "  Mer- 
chants of  the  Staple,"  or  syn- 
dicate of  wool  buyers,  their 
monopoly  of  trade  in  raw 
materials,  and  thus  helped 
the  English  Merchant  Adven- 
turers (cliartered  in  ir)07) 
to  compete  successfully  with 
tlieir  Hanseatic  and  Venetian 
rivals.    Although  he  would  not 

help  C'olundjus  to  exi)lore  the  western  ocean,  he  was  s<M3n  led  by 
the  successes  of  lS])ain  to  seek  an  independent  route  to  India  for 
his  merchants.     In  1  I'.i7  he  aided  and  encouraged  John  Cabot, 


.'\KHs  OI-  THK  Grir.n  of  Mkk(H.\nt 
Taii.uks.  \im. 

I-iiinl>,  symlHtli/.ing  wool  fle»'r«'s:  p:i- 
vilioii.s  ami  robes,  synibuli/iiig 
woolen  clotli. 


252  THE  TUDOR   MONARCHY 

the  discoverer  of  the  North  American  continent,  to  make  the 
voyage  on  which  was  later  based  the  English  claims  to  the 
American  continent  north  of  Florida ;  and  thus,  unwittingly,  he 
gave  to  his  descendants  a  far  more  important  possession  than 
India  itself.  The  importance  of  Henry  VII. 's  work  has  been 
overshadowed  by  the  more  spectacular  reign  of  his  son,  but 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  he  found  the  English  monarchy 
helpless  and  the  English  nation  disorganized,  and  that  at  his 
death  in  1509  he  transmitted  to  his  surviving  son  Henry  a 
strong,  well-organized,  and  orderly  government. 

Henry  VIII.  began  his  reign  at  eighteen  years  of  age,  with 
every   favoring   condition.     He    was   handsome,   very  strong, 

276.  Char-     skillful  in  the  sports  which  his  subjects  loved,  intelligent, 

acter  of  ^^^^  sliriewd  enough  to  use  all  his  personal  attractions  to 
Henry  VlII.  °  ^ 

(1509-1547)  gain  his  own  way  in  everything,  while  outwardly  con- 
forming to  the  constitution.  He  inherited  his  father's  abso- 
lutism, but  not  his   parsimony.     He  "  threw  away  with  both 

hands  "  the  treasure  which  Henry 
VII.  had  hoarded  up,  and  millions 
more  which  fate  later  placed  within 
his  grasp.  He  loved  to  dazzle  his 
subjects  and  his  rivals  by  personal 
display,  and  he  loved  to  play  a  lead- 
ing part  in  the  Continental  wars  of 
the  period.  In  satisfying  his  de- 
sires he  overbore  all  opposition, 
Coin  of  Henry  viit.,  show-  whether  of  councilors,  Parliament, 
iNG  HIS  Portrait.  or  foreign  princes ;   and  when  the 

temper  of  the  nation  grew  threatening  under  his  exactions,  he 
forced  his  minister  to  assume  the  blame. 

The  first  of  his  scapegoats,  and  the  last  and  greatest  of  the 

277.  Rise  long  series  of  English  ecclesiastic  statesmen,  was  Thomas 
Wolse*^^^^^  Wolsey.  Born  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  wool  merchant, 
(1471-1530)    Wolsey  was  graduated   from  Oxford    University   when 


THE    EAKLV   TUUoKS  253 

fifteen  years  (tld.  and  a  few  years  later  was  made  chaplain, 
first  of  the  Arehbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  later  of  Henry  \'l  1. 
When  fiirty  years  old,  he  became  a  member  of  the  royal 
council  of  the  young  king,  Henry  VII 1.,  and  his  abilities 
and  his  attractive  personality  soon  won  him  high  favor.  In 
1514  he  was  made  Archbishop  of  York,  and  in  lol")  Lord  Chan- 
cellor of  England,  and  a  little  later  a  cardinal  of  the  Roman 
Church.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  papal  legate  to 
England,  which  gave  him  precedence  even  over  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury. 

Wolsey  had  an  ardent  ambition  to  become  Pope,  bnt  a  Vene- 
tian diplomat  declared  that  he  was  already  seven  times  more 
powerful  than  the  Pope.  His  astonishing  advancement  roused 
the  worst  side  of  lus  character;  his  splendor  of  dress  and  of 
living  was  extreme ;  his  arrogance  and  domineering  bearing 
toward  his  subordinates  won  him  universal  dislike;  and  the 
ruthless  taxation  of  the  commons  to  make  possible  his  bold 
foreign  policy,  made  his  name  detested  throughout  England. 

Wolsey 's  policy  aimed  to  hold  the  balance  between  Spain 

and  France  by  aiding  one  or  the  other  party  in  war  and  by 

diplomatic  intrigue,  so  as  to  make  his  master  the  arbiter   278    Henry 

of   European    politics.     This  itolicv  did   not  necessarilv       ni  s  for- 
i  r  I  .  eign  wars 

requirt'  costly  wars;  but  to  satisfy  Henry's  vanity  Wul-  (151215251 
sey  had  to  organize  armies  for  exj)ensivt!  and  fruitless  in- 
vasions of  F'raiioe  in  ir»lL'  and  ini.".,  and  as  usual  the  French 
war  led  to  a  war  with  iScotland,  in  which  Henry's  Ijrothcr-in- 
law.  King  James  IV.,  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Flodden  Field. 
A  decade  later,  when  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  French 
king  Francis  1.  were  at  swords'  points,  Henry  demanded  that 
Wolsey  raise  money  for  fresh  invasions  of  F'rance.  Although 
himself  opposed  to  the  war,  Wolsey  secured  grants  from 
Parliament,  and  bcncvolencres  from  rich  citizens.  'I'lu-n  a 
victory  of  Charh's  ovrr  Francis  at  Favia,  in  l."»L'."i.  so  shook 
the  "balance  of  power*'  which  Henry  wished  to  maintain,  that 


254  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

he  deemed  it  wise  to  make  an  alliance  with  France  instead  of 
attacking  her. 

Soon  Henry's  imperious  selfishness  involved  Wolsey  in  still 
more  serious  trouble.     Henry's  older  brother,  Prince  Arthur, 
279.  Wolsey  died   in  1502  leaving   his   wife   Catherine,    Princess   of 
kind's ^  Aragon,  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain 

marriage  (§  272).  Henry  VII.,  for  political  reasons,  determined  that 
Henry,  the  n«xt  heir,  should  marry  his  brother's  widow ;  and, 
as  such  a  marriage  was  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  church,  a 
dispensation  was  obtained  from  Pope  Julius  II.  For  thirteen 
years  Henry  and  Catherine  remained  happily  united,  during 
which  time  several  children  Avere  born  to  them;  but  Princess 
ISIary,  later  queen,  was  the  only  one  that  lived.  Then,  in  1522, 
a  certain  Anne  Boleyn,  fresh  from  residence  in  France,  became 
maid  of  honor  to  the  queen ;  and  Henry  at  once  began  to  load 
her  family  with  honors  and  favors.  Four  years  later  he  con- 
fided to  his  ministers  that  he  had  grave  doubts  regarding  the 
validity  of  his  marriage,  arguing  that  the  death  of  his  children 
in  infancy  showed  that  God  disapproved  of  the  marriage.  He 
therefore  proposed  that  the  Pope  should  declare  it  invalid. 

Wolsey  at  first  approved  this  suggestion,  for  he  thought 
that  he  might  gain  prestige  by  negotiating  a  second  marriage 
with  some  foreign  princess  ;  but  when  he  found  that  Henry 
was  determined  to  wed  Anne  Boleyn,  he  stoutly  opposed 
the  project.  Still  later  he  yielded  to  the  king's  urgings, 
and  exerted  himself  to  secure  a  favorable  decision  from  Pope 
Clement  VII.  Clement,  however,  was  anxious  not  to  auger 
Catherine's  Spanish  and  German  relatives;  so  he  procrastinated 
until  Henry,  thinking  that  Wolsey  was  the  cause  of  the  delay, 
poured  out  the  vials  of  his  wrath  upon  his  too  subservient 
minister.  Wolsey  was  prosecuted  on  the  ridiculous  ground 
that  he  had  violated  the  Statute  of  Praemunire  (Appendix  I) 
in  acting  as  the  Pope's  legate,  although  he  had  done  this  with 
Henry's  consent;  he  was  condemned  to  forfeit  all  his  property, 


■riii:   i:.\i;i.v    rrixtiis  255 

rt'siL,Mi  liis  cluiuoi'IU)rsliii),  ami  ii'tiie  to  his  see  at  York.  A 
subsequent  cluirge  of  treason  hastened  the  death  ot  the  heart- 
broken minister  in  1530. 

AVolsey's  snocessor  was  hist)\vn  secretary,  Thomas  ( "rumwell, 
who  jiroposfd  to  remove  tlie  wlioh'  matter  of  tlie  annulment 
of  Henry's  marriage  from  tlie  jurisdiction  of  the  Pope  by    280    Crom- 

abolishing  his  authority  over  the  English  Church.     He        J'^}^  ^^^ 

"  .  the  king  8 

first  made  an   attack   on  the   immunities  and  the  vast     supremacy 

revenues  of  the  clergy,  terrifying  them  by  the  sweeping  charge 

that  in   recognizing   Wolsey's   authority  as  legate   the}-  had 

become  involved  in  his  guilt.     They  offered  to  pay  a  fine  of 

£10,000,  but  Henry  refused  to  accept  it,  unless  they  would 

admit  that  the  king  was  "the  Supreme  Head  of  the  English 

Cliuirh,''  and  agree  not  to  assemble   in   Convocation   nor  to 

legislate  in  religious  matters  without  his  authority.     This  they 

did  in  ir).''>l.     Next,  Cromwell  procured  the  [)assage  of  the  Act 

of  Annates  (l.").')!'),  authorizing,  but  not  compelling,  the  king 

to  seize  certain  revenues  liitherto  paid  to  the  Pope. 

As  Clement  refused  to  be  hurried  into  a  decision,  Henry 
determined  to  sue  for  annulment  of  his  marriage  in  the  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastical  courts;  and  he  smoothed  the  path  to  suc- 
cess by  apjiointing  as  primate  a  subservient  priest,  Thomas 
Cranmer,  of  whose  decision  he  was  so  certain  that  he  secretly 
married  Anne  Holeyn  before  the  trial  of  the  case.  Four 
months  later  (May,  1533)  Cranmer  announced  the  decision  of 
the  court  that  Henry's  first  marriage  had  been  null  and  void 
from  the  beginning. 

To  tlie  Pope's  remonstrances  against  this  interference  with 
his  authority,  Cranmer  responded  by  a  momentous  declaration, 
made  to  the   King's  Council,  that  "by   Cod's   law  the       „„      _ 
Pope  has  no  more  authority  than  any  other  bishop."     In       Reforma- 
1534   Parliament  gave   its  sanction   to  tliis  doctrine  in         England 
the  Act   of   Sui)remarv,  which   decreed  that  "the  kintr 
our   sovereign    lord  .  .  .  shall    be    taken,  acce])ted,  and       Vlll.,c.i 


256 


THE   TUDOR    MONARCHY 


reputed  the  only   supreme  head   in  eartli  of   the  Church  of 

England"  (Appendix  J). 

The  English  Reformation  was  thus,  in  its  first  stage,  merely 

a  change  in  the  government  of  the  church.  "  Henr}',  head  of 
Thatcher  &  ^^^  State,  became  also  head  of  the  Church,  or  briefly,  the 
Schwiii,  English  Pope."    A  parliamentary  statute  provided  that 

History  of      thenceforth  bishops  should  be  elected  by  the  chapters  of 
Europe,  331    ^j^g  cathedrals  in  the  different  sees,  on  receipt  of  letters 

from  the  king  naming  the  person  whom  they  should  choose. 


Henry  VIH.  giving  the  Bible  to  Clergy  and  Laity. 

Frontispiece  to  Coverdale's  Bible,  15;3o,  designed  by  Holbein. 

All  pa3nnents  to  Rome  were  of  course  abolished,  and  the 
church  revenues  were  devoted  wholly  to  local  uses.  The  reor- 
ganized church  claimed  the  same  authority  as  the  parent  body 
to  define  doctrines,  conduct  religious  services,  and  regulate  all 
matters  spiritual ;  and  heresy  against  Catholic  doctrine  was 
punished  by  Henry  as  severely  as  by  any  other  monarcli. 


TIIK    KAKl.V    n  DnUs 


257 


X»'vi'itlu'lt'ss.  Ilenrv  pit'iiait'd  the  \v;iy  tor  a  far  <;reater 
change  wlien  lie  put  the  Bible  into  the  hands  of  the  laity.  1\V 
his  direction,  each  cathedral  exposed  a  copy  of  the  Hil)le  282. 

in    Knglish    for  public   use,  and  copies  were    placed    in         ^church 
every    churdi    thmughout  the    land.       Less  significant,  policy 

although  mure  spectacular,  was  his  action  regarding  the  mon- 
asteries, many  of  which  were  causes  of  scandal  to  the  com- 
munities  in    which   tliey   were   situated,  and    nearly  all   were 


Mi'N  VSIKKIKS    (PkIoRIKS,    Al.llKYS,    AM)    HoSPITALS)    IN    AND    NKAR    LoNDON 

AUOIT    I'vVi. 

over-rich.  Wolsey  had  attempted  to  lessen  these  abuses  by 
suppressing  all  monasteries  with  less  tlian  seven  inmates.  Now 
Henry  determined  to  gain  popularity,  wealth,  ami  the  i)leasure 
'if  jiniinying  the  Pope,  l)y  suppressing  the  rest  and  seizing 
their  property.  Cromwell  was  placed  at  the  head  of  a  commi.s- 
siiMi  to  visit  and  report  on  the  condition  of  universities,  religious 
liou.ses,  and  all  spiritual  corporations  :  and  ou  the  strength  of  his 
report,  which  stated  that  the  monasteries  were  hopelessly  cor- 
rupt. Parliament  passed  acts  of  suppression  (ir).'i()  and  1").')9), 
by  which  37(5  monasteries  were  abolished.  Part  of  their  in- 
come was  devoted  to  church  uses,  and  all  the  rest  went  to  en- 
rich Henry  and  Ids  favorites;  even  the  buildings  were  granted 
U)  his  courtiers,  to  be  sold  for  wliatever  tliey  would  bring, 
w ai.klk's  kn<j.  iiisr. —  1(5 


258  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

The  first  attack  on  the  monasteries  caused  an  uprising  in  the 
north  among  the  ignorant  peasantry,  who  believed   that   the 

283.  The        parish  churches  wouhl  be  next  attacked,  and  who  banded 

Pilgrimage    together  in  a  "Pilgrimage  of    Grace"    to  defend  their 

of  Grace  : 

the  Bloody     ancient  faith  against  innovations.    The  mob  was  deluded 

Statute  with  lying  })romises,  and  later  the  leaders  were  seized 

and  executed.      But  in   1539  an  act  was   passed  which  gave 

assurance  that  many  of  the  beliefs  and  practices  of  the  Roman 

Church  would  be  enforced  under  the  new  regime.     This  act 

declared  in  favor  of  (1)  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  and 

certain  allied  doctrines ;  (2)  the  practice  of  clerical  celibacy, 

of  confession  to  priests,  and  of  saying  private  masses  for  the 

dead.    The  penalties  prescribed  for  attacking  these  doctrines 

and  practices  were  so  terrible  —  burning  and  hanging  —  that 

the  act  received  tlie  name  of  the  "  Bloody  Statute." 

In  ir);54  Parliament  declared  the  succession  to  the  throne  to 

be  in  the  children  of  Anne  Boleyn;  but  in  less  than  three  years 

284.  The       Anne  was  executed  on  a  charge  of  unfaithfulness,  and  her 

succession     daughter  Elizabeth  was  declared  illegitimate.      On   the 

to  the  '^  '^ 

throne  day  after  Anne's  execution,  Henry  married  Jane  S^mour, 

who  died  after  bearing  him  a  son,  Edward.  Before  Edward's 
birth  Parliament  passed  an  act  fixing  the  succession  upon  the 
children  of  this  marriage,  and  empowering  Henry,  in  default 
of  heirs,  to  devise  the  crown  by  will.  In  1544,  the  right  of 
succession  was  restored  to  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  The  king 
made  three  subsequent  marriages  ;  but  they  have  little  his- 
torical importance. 

The  king  was  now  in  possession  of  absolute  authority  under 
the  forms  of  parliamentary  government.     At  his  nod,  Parlia- 

«„.    ,,  ment  so  restricted  the  "benefit  of  clergy  "  that  clerks  and 

285.  Hen-  .  °' 

ry's  abso-      laymen  were  equal  before  the  law ;  it  sent  to  the  block, 

lutism  ^^    wholly   un proven    accusations,  ministers,  peers,  and 

commoners  alike ;  it  altered  the  succession  to  the  crown  not  once 
but  several  times ;  it  sanctioned  the  repudiation  of  the  king's 


riiK  KAKLV   rn)(»i{s  25lt 

debts  ;  it  even  decreeil  tliiit  tlie  kind's  inoclamations,  if  not 
iepu<,Miant  to  established  laws,  or  directed  against  the  life  or 
property  of  the  subject,  should  have  the  same  force  as  acts 
of  Parliament !  The  power  of  Parliament  was  still  further 
diminished  by  the  growing  custom  of  determining  important 
measures  in  secret  meetings  of  some  of  the  great  officers  of  the 
state,  who  formed  what  was  called  the  Privy  Council. 

The  absolutism  thus  fostered  extended  to  both  Wales  and 
Ireland.     By  a   seiies   of  acts  {ioHo   and  lo4'2)  the    laws  of 
England    were    extended    over    Wales,    including    the     286    Hen- 
marches;    and    a    countv   organization    was   established     ^ys  policy 

.  V  o  jjj  Wales 

with  Its  share  of  representation  in  Parliament.  Ireland  and  Ireland 
had  long  been  slipping  away  from  English  control,  but  under 
Henry  VII.  Sir  Edward  Poynings  had  induced  the  Irish  Par- 
liament (1494)  to  pass  acts  providing  (1)  that  all  English 
statutes  should  be  binding  upon  Ireland;  (2)  that  all  Irish 
acts  should  receive  the  sanction  of  the  king  and  council 
before  they  should  be  enacted  by  the  Irish  Parliament. 
Nevertheless,  the  successive  F:nglish  governors  were  unable 
to  suppress  the  factional  strife  of  the  Norman-Irish  Kildares, 
I  Sutlers,  and  Desmonds.  Henry  VII  I.,  by  attempting  to  enforce 
good  government  within  the  Pale  (the  district  in  which  Eng- 
lish laws  prevailed),  provoked  a  revolt  which  served  as  an 
excuse  for  the  conquest  of  most  of  the  island.  The  con- 
•  luered  i»()rtions  were  erected  into  earldoms  and  granted  to 
chiefs  on  whom  Henry  could  rely,  and  the  English  language, 
dr»\ss,  and  ecclesiastical  system  (royal  supremacy  and  all) 
were  forced  upon  the  people  — that  is,  so  far  as  legislation 
could  accomplish  it. 

Henry    VIII.'s   effective    work   was  completeil    bv   the   year 
l.)lL'.       Ill    th;it   yt-ar  tlit'ie   lirokt-  out   a   frt'sli    war   with        287    End 

Scotland,  which  was  cut   short,  liowcwr,  bv  the  dcatii  of        °'^tt?''^ 

I'll  ^^^  ^ 

tlie  .Scottisii  king,  .lames  V.      H»'nry  then  tried  to  create  reign 

a  friendly  bond   between   the  two   nations   by   proposing  his 


260 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


little  son,  Edward,  as  husband  for  James's 
daughter  and  successor,  Mary  Stuart ;  but 
the  Catholic  party,  which  was  in  power 
in  Scotland,  preferred  the  friendship  of 
their  old  ally,  France,  and  the  proposal  was 
rejected.  Henry  then  joined  a  great  alli- 
ance which  had  been  formed  against  France, 
in  1543,  by  the  Emperor  and  various  Ger- 
man princes,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  He 
invaded  France  (1544),  but  his  allies  at 
once  concluded  peace  without  his  consent 
or  knowledge,  and  he  was  left  to  make  a 
treaty  of  peace  in  1546  which  brought  him 
neither  profit  nor  glory.  His  death  during 
the  next  year  left  England  exposed  to  the 

perils  of  a  regency,  since  his  only  son  and  heir,  Edward  VI., 

was  then  but  ten  years  old. 


Man's  Dress.  Time 
OF  Henry  VHI. 


The  chief  characteristic  of  the  earh^  Tudor  reigns  is  the 
headlong  rush  of  events  toward  absolutism  in  the  government. 
288    Sum-     -^^  ^^^^  bidding  of  the  sovereign.  Parliament,  with  hardly 
mary  any  contest,  changes  the  religious  system  of  the  state, 

gives  the  monarch  supreme  control  over  its  administration, 
alters  the  succession,  embroils  itself  with  foreign  powers,  and 
even  strips  itself  of  power  by  giving  to  the  king's  proclama- 
tions the  force  of  statute  law.  To  the  credit  of  the  House 
of  Commons  be  it  said  that  this  was  accomplished  in  part 
through  the  king's  creation  of  "  rotten  boroughs  "  out  of  small 
communities  whose  representatives  were  subservient  to  the 
crown.  Such  conditions  made  i)ossible  the  tyranny  of  later 
monarchs  and  the  general  corruption  of  Parliaments  up  to 
1832  (§§496-7,  564-5).  This  new  absolutism  found  fitting 
expression  in  the  absorption  of  Wales  and  the  conquest  of 
western   Ireland,  and  in   schemes  of  foreign   warfare.     That 


riiK  i:ai>'i,v  hixiks 


2t;i 


liberty  ilid  ii<'t  wholly  perish  during,'  this  in-iiod  is  solely 
due  to  the  f;iet  that  all  the  Tudor  inonarchs,  fioia  Ilemv  to 
Klizaiieth,  ndi'd  (broadly  speaking)  in  tetdmieal  conforniity 
with  the  "law  of  the  land,"  and  Parliament  could  resume 
an  independent  attitude  at  any  time,  when  oecasion  arose, 
without  necessarily  bringing  on  a  revolution. 

TOPICS 

(I)  What  svas  the  chief  source  of  wealtli  in  Kuiilaiul  diuiii'j;  the    Suggestive 
iiiediitval  period  ?     Wliat  in  modern  times  '!     {;!)    Wliat  effect  did    *°p"^^ 

tlie  fniiner  condition  liave  upon  tiie  importance  of  the  nobles? 
(3)  Wiiy  were  not  the  discoveries  of  the  Cabots  followed  up  im- 
mediately ?  (4)  Wiiat  made  the  Star  Chamber  Court  certain  to 
become  an  instrument  of  tyranny  ?  (o)  Trace  tlie  different  cases 
in  wliicli  the  I'ope's  autliority  was  detied  in  England  before  1533. 
(6)  What  effect  did  the  decision  of  Cranmer's  court  liave  upon  the 
succession  to  the  tiirone  ?  (7)  In  just  what  ways  was  monasticism 
"alien  to  tlie  spirit  and  temper  of  the  Engli.sh  people  "'  ?  (8)  Wliat 
effect  did  tiie  dissolution  of  the  mona.steries  have  on  the  popularity 
of  tlie  Reformat i.m  ?  (0)  Why  were  the  Tudor  inonarchs  especially 
interested  in  Wales?     (10)   Why  wa.s  Henry  VIII.  so  popular  ? 

(II)  The  .stor>-  of  I'erkin  Warbeck.  (12)  Henry  VII. 's  fiscal  Search 
measures,  including  "Morion's  Fork.*'  (13)  Wolsey  in  Shake-  ^oP'cs 
speare's  Ui'tirii  VIII.     (14)    Henry  VIII. 's  title  of  "Defender  of 

tiie  Faitii."  (!.'))  Tiie  voyage  of  the  Cabots.  (1(5)  The  Field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gohl.  (17)  Education  of  the  Trincess  Elizabeth. 
(18)  Character  of  Queen  Catherine.  (19)  Beginning  of  the  study 
of  Greek  in  England.     (20)   Hampton  Court. 


REFERENCES 

Set-   map.   p.   240 ;    Gardiner.   Srlinol  Atlas,  maps   20.   21,    22;    Geography 
Pooif.  IlUton'ritl  Atl'in.  maps  xxi.  xxii.  xxx.;  IJeich,  \t'ic  .Stndfiitu' 
Atlds,  maps  1!»,  20.  21.  2:;. 

Bright.   Ilitttnrij  nf  Kni/hind,   II.  .•5r)5-421  ;   Gardiner.   Stmh  nt's    Secondary 
///a^;rj/,  ch.s.  xxiii.-xxvi.  ;  Haiisome.  Ailniurpd  History.  37(>-42o  ;    *"t'io'''i'" 
Green.  Short   IliKtorij.  m\-:\:u,  —  History  of  the  Eivilinh   Pto/il,; 
bk.  V.  cha.   ii.-iv.,  bk.  vi.  <'h.  i.  ;  Montague,  Ehnninta  of  ('onstitu- 
tional  History,  U^-h)":  ;  I'owell  and  Pout.  History  of  Kinjluiiil.  ;{48- 
3.J8.  :{7;;-l2:J;    Brewer,  Stud>iU\^  Ilnmr,  cha.  xiii.-xv.  ;  Lingard, 


262 


THE   TI'DOR    MONARCHY 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


History  of  England,  111.  clis.  viii.  ix.,  IV.  chs.  i.-iv.  ;  Moberley, 
Early  Tudors  ;  Gairdner,  Henry  VII.  ;  Beazley,  John  and  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  ;  Creighton,  Cardinal  Wolsey  ;  Taunton,  Thomas  Wol- 
sey,  Legate  and  Reformer  ;  Hutton,  Sir  Thomas  More  ;  Lee,  Great 
Englishmen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  ;  Merriman,  Thomas  Crom- 
icell ;  Ga.squet,  Sitjipression  of  the  Monasteries]  Taswell-Langmead, 
Constitutional  History,  304-:]22,  334-364  ;  Wakeman,  Introduction 
to  History  of  the  Church  of  England,  253-251  ;  Edwards,  Wales, 
chs.  xix.-xxi.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  1.  chs.  xiii.-xvii.  ;  Law- 
less, Ireland,  chs.  xix.-xxii.  ;  Fronde,  History  of  England,  L-IV. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  138-158  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  53-57  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
nos.  44-18  ;  Cheyney,  Early  Beformation  Period  in  England 
(University  of  Pennsylvania  Reprints,  I.  no.  1)  ;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  xlvi.-lxviii.  ;  Pollard,  Tudor 
Tracts,  nos.  1-7  ;  Smith,  Days  of  James  IV.  of  Scots.  See  New 
England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  24(5-247,  —  His- 
torical Sources,  §  54. 

Ainsworth,  Windsor  Castle  ;  Bates  and  Coman.  English  History 
told  by  English  Poets,  231-257  ;  G.  P.  R.  James,  Darnlcy  ;  Landor, 
Imaginary  Conversations  (Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Holeyn)  ;  Major, 
When  Knighthood  teas  in  Flower  ;  Manning,  Household  of  Sir 
Thomas  More  ;  Scott,  Marmion  ;  Shakespeare.  King  Henry  VIII.  ; 
Yonge,  The  Armourer's  Apprentice  ;  Ford,  Perkin  Warbeck. 


THE  TUDOR  LIXE 


Time  scale,  25  yeurs  to  one  Inch 


.40 HENRY  Vll.=  Elizabeth  of  York 

Ip.  EM)  I  (P-Sfl) 


Arthur 


^•"i^gs^ptDMarsarete^^ Lord  Angus 


Charles  =(2)MAry 
Brandon 


Duke  of  Suffolk 


^(--Catherine  =  CD  HENRY   VIII. CS)^  Jane 

"'■^'•f^ — linJ2)Anne  Boleyn |_Seymour 


-MARY 


JAMES  V. 

-KlUsd  at  Fluddro. 

1M2 


EDWARD  VIr 


Margaret  Frances 

—  m.  Henry  (jrey 

Dukt  o   Aiffulk 


Lady  June  (ircy 

Execuuj.  1&&4  — 


m.  Lord  (Tiilldford 
Dudley 


FRANCIS  i\.—(VHAUyi2)=  Henry  Stuart 

Klofuf  Frun  jj]  (3)|,^,^|  Lonl' Uaraltj 
-Murler^,  1674  — 


ELIZABETH 


Arabella  Stuart 


b*ft«r  kDowv  M 

JAMES  I. 

—  cf  EatbM     — 
(p.  370) 


368 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 


CRISIS    IN  RELIGION   UNDER    EDWARD   VI.    AND   MARY 
TUDOR    (1547-1558) 

The  reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  of  Mary  Tudor,  together  cov- 
ering only  eleven  years,  were  free  from  serious  foreign  compli- 
289.  The       cations.      During  these  years  other  states  were  rent  by 

Reforma-       religious  wars  and 

tion  in 

Europe  civil       dissensions. 

The  Reformation  move- 
ment, which  on  the  Con- 
tinent involved  matters 
of  doctrine  as  well  as  of 
church  government  and 
morals,  had  already  swept 
over  Norway,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  northern  Ger- 
many, and  parts  of 
France,  Switzerland,  and 
the  Netherlands ;  and 
everywhere  the  attempts 
of  the  Roman  Catholic 
monarchs  to  crush  out 
the  new  heresies  pro- 
duced violent  civil  strife. 
Under  Edward  VI.,  the 
Reformation    in 


Edward  VI.,  holding  the  York  and 
Tudor  Rose. 

From  a  portrait  by  Holbein. 


290.  Trend 

of  England    England  entered  on  a  new  phase,  marked  by  the  adoption 

Protes^  of  the  "  reformed  "  Protestant  doctrines,  under  the  influ- 

tantism  ence  of  the  young  king's  guardians.     At  first  affairs  were 

264 


CRISIS  IN  ki:m(;i<>n  rNDKu  kdwakd  VI.         205 

directed  by  a  council  presitK'd  over  by  Edward's  uncle,  the 
Duke  of  Somerset,  who  used  his  position  to  supjKjrt  the  Refor- 
mation at  home  and  abroad.  Aided  by  Archbishop  Craiimer, 
he  quite  transformed  the  church,  causing  the  clergy  to  repu- 
diate distinctively  Catholic  doctrines,  and  abolishing  many  of 
the  ancient  practices  which  he  held  to  be  superstitious.  To 
save  Scotland  to  Protestantism,  he  again  urged  the  marriage  of 
Edward  and  Mary  of  Scots ;  and  being  refused,  he  plunged  the 
kingdom  into  war  with  Scotland,  and  later  with  France.  As  a 
result  of  these  follies,  the  Scots  betrothed  ^Mary  to  the  Dauphin 
of  France,  and  the  English  were  driven  into  revolts  that  led  to 
Somerset's  removal  from  ottice  and  his  execution.  His  succes- 
sor, the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  also  favored  Protestantism. 
as  being  most  favorable  to  his  own  aml)itious  schemes. 

The  vital  distinction  between  the  Catholic  and  Protestant 
faiths  lay  in  their  different  answers  to  the  question,  '•  \\'li;it 

things  are  essential  to  the  salvation  of  the  human  soul '.' "  '      „„,    ^ 

'^  291     Fun- 

The    Roman    Catholic   doctrine   is    that    the  church,  of       damental 

which  the  Pope  is  the  visible  head,  is  the  only  author-         *^^^^and 

itative  guide  as  to  what  is  true  or  false  in  religious  doc-     Protestant 

trine,  the  only  earthly  mediator  between  God  and  man, 

and  therefore  a  necessary  instrumentality  for  salvation.     This 

claim  rests  upon  the  church's  interpretation  of  Christ's  words 

to  Peter:    "Thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this  ro<k  will    1         Matthew 

build  my  church."  "''•  •'^'  ■'^ 

Another   j)assage  which   was   held   to   be  of   almost   etjual 

importance  was  that  containing  Christ's  words  at   the   Last 

'Tliestiuly  i>f  riliRions  Hopnia  shouM  in  Rciifral  Ix-  jt-ft  until  tin-  piiinl  is 
mori' iiiatun' :  l»iit  tliesiibsc(|Ucnt  |xiliiical  history  of  Kti^lanil  <-an  not  Ix- intel- 
ligently niKlerstood  nnlcss  tlu- student  iiniierstands  elearly  the  nature  <>f  the 
relipions  change  brought  about  by  the  R«'formation,  and  exactly  what  was 
meant  by  certain  expre.-sions,  like  "  transiibstantiation,"  wliich  ap|»car  a^ain 
and  again  in  the  legislation  of  the  next  two  centuries  of  course,  the  que.t- 
tinn  of  the  truth  of  these  doi^mas  is  wholly  outside  tin-  limits  of  a  course  in 
English  history. 


266  THE   TUDOR    MONARCHY 

Supper  (Matthew  xxvi.  26-28).  The  Roman  Church  holds  that 
the  woi'ds  "  take,  eat,  this  is  my  body,"  etc.,  imply  a  miracu- 
lous change  of  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine  into 
the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  which  takes  place  at 
every  celebration  of  the  mass.  This  doctrine,  called  "  tran- 
substantiation,"  was  combated  by  the  Reformers,  who  claimed 
that  Christ  spoke  figuratively,  and  that  the  bread  and  wine 
undergo  no  change  of  substance. 

In  thus  exercising  the  right  to  interpret  the  Scriptures  for 
themselves,  the  Reformers  were  giving  expression  to  the  fun- 
damental ideas  of  Protestantism  —  that  the  historic  church  is 
not  a  necessary  agent  in  man's  salvation,  and  that  it  is  the 
right  of  every  man  to  adjust  for  himself  his  relations  with  his 
Maker.  At  first  they  failed  to  see  this  logical  implication 
of  their  position,  and  for  a  long  time  the  Church  of  England 
exerted  all  the  powers  of  the  ancient  Roman  Church  in 
matters  of  doctrine  and  discipline  over  all  English  subjects. 

In  1549  Cranmer  and  certain  associates  prepared  a  ritual  in 
English  based  on  the  ancient  usages  but  adapted  in  its  phrase- 
292.  Trans-  ology  and  forms  to  the  new  beliefs.  Three  years  later 
^f^Si^^E^  an  enlarged  prayer  book  was  issued,  the  use  of  'which 
lish  Church  was  obligatory  ou  all  the  clergy.  Its  framers  had  three 
objects  in  view :  (1)  to  make  the  people  familiar  with  the 
Scriptures  by  having  a  large  part  of  the  Bible  read  during 
divine  service  in  the  course  of  each  year  ;  (2)  to  complete  the 
separation  from  Rome  by  carrying  on  the  whole  service  in  the 
English  instead  of  the  Latin  language  ;  (3)  to  rid  the  service 
of  certain  alleged  superstitious  and  unhistorical  legends  and 
conceptions.  As  a  further  measure  against  superstition,  the 
government  ordered  that  images  and  stained  glass  windows 
depicting  the  lives  and  miracles  of  the  saints  should  be  de- 
stroyed ;  and  it  completed  the  liberalizing  of  the  church  by 
permitting  the  clergy  to  marry.  In  1553  the  king  and  his 
council    formally   impressed   upon   the   church    the  stamp   of 


C'KISIS    IN     KKl.liilo.N     INDKK    MAliV    TLDoi; 


•ji;, 


Protestantism  by  issuing  forty-two  '-Articles  of  Doctrine" 
fonuuliitecl  by  Craniner  and  approved  l)y  Convocation  —  later 
(undt-r  Elizabeth)  reduced  to  thirty-nine. 

Thus   the  Angliean    Church   in    its  general   form  was  com- 
pletely established  when  Edward  died  (1553),  after  a  reign  of 
only  six  years.     As  soon  as   the  king  showed  evidence     293.  Plots 
of  failing  health,  and  it  was  seen  that  he  would  die  un-     p    ^    t    ^ 
married,  Northumberland's  ambition  led  him  to  scheme      succession 
to  retain  power  after  Edward's  death.     To  prevent  a  return  to         • 
Koman  Catholicism,  which  was  certain  to  happen  if  Edward's 
sister  Mary  succeeded  him,  N()rthumberland  secured  the  mar- 
riage of  his  son  Lord  Guildford  Dudley  to  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
great-granddaughter  of   Henry  VIL,  and  induced   Edward  to 
make   a   will    settling   the   succession    upon  this  young  lady. 
On    Edward's    death    in 
July,  155.'i,   Northumber- 
land   caused    Lady    Jane 
Grey    to    be    proclaimed 
queen,     but     his     action 
created     no    enthusiasm, 
and   he  failed    in   an   at- 
tempt to  seize  the  person    inscription  [jane]  cut  i.v  Ia)ri)  (Jiild- 
of    Mary    Tudor.      Marv         ^^'\"  D.  ...-kv  s  Cell  in  thk  Towkr 

-'  •  (»F  London. 

fled  to  Norwich  and  rallied 

certain  lords  to  lier  support;  and  upon  her  advance  toward 
London  the  reljellion  collapsed.  Although  NorthundK'rland 
submitted  at  once,  he  was  imprisoned  and  i>rouiptly  lieheatled ; 
and  later  La<ly  Jane  Grey,  the  innocent  victim  of  his  ambition, 
followed  him  to  the  block. 

Mary's    reign  extemled  over   five  years,  from   155.')  to  155S. 
Her  policy  was  influenced  by  her  devout  ('atholicism  and  liy  her 
great  reverence  for  her  cou.sin,  the  Emi)eror  Charles  V.    294.  Mary's 
At  home  she  set  her.self  the  task  of  gradually  restoring         CathoUc 
England  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  to  the  government  of  ^°  '^^ 


•268 


THE    TUIXIR    MONAIJCHY 


the  Pope.  The  Reformation  bishops,  like  Cranmer,  Ridley, 
and  Latimer,  were  arrested;  the  Catholic  bishops  were  re- 
stored to  the  sees  from  which  they  had  been  removed  ;  and 
Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  who  accepted  the  Roman 
Catholic  doctrines,  although  he  'rejected  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  was  made  chancellor.  Guided  by  Gardiner,  the  church 
returned  to  the  policy  of  Henry  VIII. ;  the  use  of  the  new 
prayer  book  was  abolished,  and  the  statutes  in  regard  to  the 
divorce  of  Catherine  were  repealed,  so  that  Mary's  legitimacy 
might  be  unquestioned. 

In  1554  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  induced  Mary  to  marry  his 
son,  Philip  II.  of  Spain  (see  table,  p.  394),  so  that  he  might 
have  the  support  of  England  in  his  struggle  with  France. 
Parliament  at   first    protested,   but  later   a  more  subservient 

Parliament  not  only  con- 
sented to  the  marriage, 
but  even  bestowed  the 
title  of  king  upon  Philip. 
The  nation  was  fitly 
punished  for  its  weak- 
ness ;  for  near  tHe  end 
of  her  reign  Mary  at- 
tacked France  to  please 
her  husband,  and  in 
1558  the  French  re- 
taliated by  besieging 
and  capturing  Calais, 
the  great  seaport  which 
for  two  hundred  and  eleven  years  had  been  England's  gate  to 
the  Continent. 

After  Mary's  marriage  to  the  champion  of  Catholicism,  the 
295.  Mary's  time  seemed  ripe  for  a  return  to  Rome.  The  government 
re^orma-  secured  a  Parliament  favorable  to  its  plans;  and  Cardinal 
tion  (1554)     Pole,   an   Englishman  of  noble  blood,  was   made  papal 


Bird's-eye  View  of  Calais  as  Fortified 
BY  THE  English. 

From  a  MS.  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


CRISIS   IN    KKLUaoN    INDKU    MAIIV    TL'DoR  2ti9 

legate  to  England,  with  authority  to  bring  about  the  recon- 
ciliation. November  -9,  1554,  Parliament  voted  to  acknowl- 
edge the  authority  of  the  Koinan  Pontiif ;  on  the  next  day  the 
nation  was  declared  absolved  from  its  guilt ;  and  a  month 
later  an  act  was  passed  which  repealed  all  the  legislation 
hostile  to  the  Pope  since  1528. 

The  Church  of  Kome  now  had  a  brilliant   opportunity  to 
recover  its  ancient  hold  upon  the  hearts  of  the  English  people, 

bv  wise  treatment  of  the  late  rebels,  bv  imrity  of  life  and       „„„    ^ 

'_  ^  296    The 

religion  among  the  clergy,  by   pliability   in  matters  not  Marian 

essential  to  doctrine  or  discipline.  Its  failure  to  do  so  P-^^ecution 
may  be  charged  to  the  unwisdom  uf  Mary  and  the  bigotry  of 
Philip,  to  the  covetousness  and  greed  of  many  of  the  clergy, 
and  to  the  injudicious  abuse  of  his  power  by  the  ruling  Pope. 
2so  sooner  was  the  union  with  Rome  made  than  a  persecution 
of  those  who  refused  to  accept  the  new  conditions  was  begun 
and  carried  on  with  great  severity.  Archbishop  Cranmer  and 
Pishops  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  Hooper,  and  many  others  who 
refused  to  be  reconciled  to  Rouu',  were  buruwl  at  the  stake. 
These  executions  for  consciencf'  sake  were  few  compared  with 
thost'  in  Spain,  and  liardly  more  numerous  than  those  under 
Ht-nry  VIII.  or  Elizabetii  ;  but  Mary  jiurposely  made  her  pun- 
ishments .severe  and  conspicuous,  believing  that  the  Reforma- 
tion would  never  have  taken  place  had  decisive  measures  been 
taken  at  the  first  outbreak.  The  effect,  however,  was  that  the 
f^nglish  people  shrank  from  a  church  which  so  ruthlessly  used 
the  stake  and  fagots,  and  attributed  Mary's  cruel  measures  to 
Sj)anish  influence. 

At  the  time  of  reconciliation,  it  was  agreed  that  all  church 
lan<ls  alienated  l)y  Henry  should  be  retained  by  tlit'ir  present 
holders;    but    now    the    Pojn'    saw  tit    t<»  claiiri    for    the        297.  The 

chun-h  all  of  its  foriin'r  itropcrtv  which  was  still    in   the  Roman 

1  11  Church's 

pos.session  of  tin*  crown,  and  to  cast  doubt  upon  the  valid-      lost  oppor- 

ity  of  the  titles  to  tiiat  poitiun  of  it   lid.l  l.v  the  nobles.  tunity 


270 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


Unfortunately  for  his  own  cause,  the  Pope  quarreled  with 
the  queen  by  depriving  Pole,  now  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
of  his  legateship  ;  and  Mary,  with  true  Tudor  spirit,  refused 

to  allow  the  Pope's  or- 
ders to  that  effect  to  be 
])roniulgated  in  Eng- 
land. Thus  Mary  her- 
self set  the  example  of 
resistance  to  the  Pope ; 
so  that  at  her  death,  in 
1558,  the  hold  of  Cathol- 
icism upon  the  nation 
was  weakened  by  her 
own  attitude,  as  well  as  by  the  popular  horror  at  her  bitter  per- 
secution of  heretics,  and  by  the  national  antagonism  to  Spain. 
No  child  was  born  to  Philip  and  Mary;  and  since  Elizabeth, 
the  next  in  succession,  was  imder  Protestant  influence,  the 
return  to  Protestantism  was  almost  a  foregone  conclusion. 


Shilling  of  Philip  and  Mary. 

"D[ei]  G[ratia]  R[eges]  AN(4[lise]  FR[ain3iae] 

NEAP[olis]  PR[iiicipes]  HISP[aiiifb]." 


The  brief  reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  IVIary  Tudor  constitute 
the    critical    period    in    the    religious    history    of    the   state. 
298    Sum-     Edward,  weak  in  body  and  supine  in  temper,  suffered  his 
™'ary  advisers  to  force  upon  a  submissive  people  a  creed  and 

ritual  which  they  were  not  yet  prepared  heartily  to  accept. 
The  episode  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  proved  that  the  nation  was 
not  ready  to  fight  to  enthrone  a  Protestant  monarch ;  and  the 
failure  opened  the  way  for  a  counter-reformation.  Mary, 
ardent  in  feeling  and  narrow  in  judgment,  taught  her  people 
to  hate  Roman  Catholicism  by  identifying  it  with  Spanish 
intolerance  and  cruelty.  In  the  revulsion  of  feeling  thus 
created,  the  amity  with  Spain  which  had  existed  since  the 
days  of  Henry  VII.  gave  place  to  fierce  antagonism  toward 
that  country  —  a  feeling  which  more  than  anything  else  gave 
to  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  its  distinctive  character. 


C'lasis  IN   ki:m(;1()N  indki;  makv  n  ixu; 


TOPICS 

(1)  By  whom  Wius  tlio  irulli  ni  liausuhstantiiuinii  (juestionecl  Suggestive 
bel\»re  this  perioil '.'  {'2)  Why  did  the  (jiuTy  arouse  su  iiiiich  iiioiv  °P"^^ 
interest  than  formerly  '.'  (8)  IIow  was  it  that  the  execution  of  here- 
tics stemed  right  both  to  Menry  VIII.  and  to  Mary  ?  (4)  Wliy  did 
Mary  especially  desire  the  death  of  C'ranuier  '.'  (5)  Wliat  were  the 
special  advantages  which  the  possession  of  Calais  gave  to  the  Eng- 
lisii  ?  (tj)  Was  there  any  precedent  for  Kdward's  action  in  be- 
queathing the  crown  by  will  ?  (7)  Why  was  the  question  of  the 
title  to  abbey  lands  so  important  ? 

(8)  The  life  of  Thomas  Cranmer.  (S»)  Mary  Tudor's  treatment  Search 
of  her  sister  Elizabeth.  (10)  The  character  of  Lady  Jane  (irey.  '°P'<=8 
(11)  Philip  II..  the  most  powerful  monarch  in  Europe.  (12)  The 
Statute  of  I'riemunire  ;  its  place  in  previous  English  history. 
(13)  Wyatt's  Rebellion.  (14)  Death  of  Rev.  John  Rogers. 
(16)  Why  did  the  Pope  .seek  to  displace  Pole?  (10)  Philip  in 
England.     (17)  How  was  Calais  captured  ? 


REFERENCES 

Bright,  History  of  England,  II.  422-401  ;  Gardiner,  StudenVx 
Hintnry,  ch.  xxviii.  ;  Ran.some,  Adranred  History.  42()-447  ;  Green, 
i>hort  History,  3.j7-:}0t>,  —  History  of  the  Enylish  People,  bk.  vi. 
chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Montague.  Eliinents  of  Coiislitutional  History,  107-101) ; 
Powell  and  Tout,  History  <</  Emjlnnd,  bk.  vi.  chs.  iii.  iv. ;  Brewer, 
StudenCa  Hume,  ch.  xvi.;  Lingard,  History  of  Euijhiud,  IV.  chs. 
v.-vii.  ;  Froude,  History  of  Kntjlniid,  V.  VI.;  Taswtll-Langmead, 
Constitutional  History,  '.i'2'2-'i'V.i,  '.WA-:iW  ;  Pollard,  Euyland  under 
the  Protector  Sontrrsft  ;  Carlyle.  Huijh  Latinifr;  Seebohm.  The 
Protextant  Ili>r<dution  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  II.  chs.  i.  ii. 
See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  248. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  no.s.  150-H56  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  una.  r)(i-'»0  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
nns.  40,  50  ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History,  nos. 
Ixix.-lxxvi. ;  I'ollard,  Tudor  'Tracts,  nos.  8-1. T ;  A.scham,  77/e 
Scholiina.'<t''r. 

Aiiisworth,  The  Toinr  of  London  ;  Rates  and  Coman.  EikjUs/i 
History  told  >>y  Eiiylish  Poi>ts,  2;")8-2H2  ;  Clemens,  The  Princf  ami 
the  /'iiujicr  ;  Dc  X'erc,  }fiiry  Tudor;  Landor,  Iinaijinary  Courer- 
sations  (Roger  Ascham  and  Lady  Jane  (irey  ;  Prince.ss  .Mary  and 
l*rince.s8  Elizabeth)  ;  .Scolt,  The  Monastrry ;  Teiiny.son,  (Jueen 
Mary  (a  drama);  Weyman,   St«>ry  ••''  f-'r-m,;..  <■/, „!■/._ 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


CHAPTER  XTX. 


POLITICAL   CRISIS   UNDER    ELIZABETH  (1558-1603) 


The  reign  of  Elizabeth  marks  a  crisis  in  English  history, 

when  the  religion  of  the  state,  its  liberal  government,  and  its 

299.   Eliza-   place  among  the  world  powers  all  hung  in  the  balance. 

"Vircin^        The   young   queen,    encompassed    by   foes    without   and 

Queen"  traitors  within    her  rdalm,  was  compelled  to  deal  with 

the    most    difficult   political    problems ;    and   the    best   proof 

of  her  great  administra- 
tive ability  is  her  suc- 
cessful reign  lasting 
almost  half  a  century. 
Elizabetli  was  a  furious 
compound  of  masculine 
and  feminine  traits.  Her 
skill  at  exercises  like  rid- 
ing and  shooting,  her 
rough  temper  and  unruly 
S})eech,  her  grasp  of 
finance  and  of  statecraft, 
her  sense  of  the  greatness 
.  of  England's  destiny, 
were  distinctly  mascu- 
line ;  her  love  of  finesse, 
Elizabeth.  of  gallant   attentions,  of 

In  the  state  costume  worn  at  the  service  of        display,  was  as  distinctly 
thanksgiving  at  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
after  the  defeat  ol  the  Armada.  feminine.     Her  wardrobe 

272 


rOLITlCAL   CUISIS   UNDER    ELIZABETH  -llo 

contained  thousands  of  dresses  and  many  jewels;  her  courtiers 
squandered  fortunes  to  entertain  her  with  masques  and  pageants. 

Eliz;il)eth  dissembled  with  her  counselors,  with  her  politi- 
cal rivals  and  allies,  almost  with  herself.  She  deliberately 
made  capital  of  her  youth  and  feminine  charm  to  create 
among  the  young  noblemen  of  her  court  an  admiration  and 
enthusiastic  loyalty  to  herself,  as  the  best  safeguard  for  her 
throne.  Her  marriage  with  either  a  Catholic  or  a  Protestant 
would  have  increased  partisan  strife  both  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent,  so  she  early  resolved  to  remain  unwedded.  ''  I 
have  long  since  made  choice  of  a  husband,  the  Kingdom  of 
England,"  she  said  to  her  Tarliament.  Nevertheless,  she 
received  many  proposals  of  marriage  from  foreign  suitors,  and 
with  these  she  used  coquetry  as  a  diplomatic  weapon,  to  gain 
time  or  to  delude  her  enemies. 

Back  of  this  apparent  vacillation  was  a  strong,  imperious 
will,  which  compelled  her  ministers,  however  able  and  inde- 
pendent in  opinion,  to  submit  to  her  control.    She  bidlied   300.   Eliza- 

them,  swore  at  them  in  council,  or  boxed  their  ears  at      »  .  ^ 

'  '  statesman- 

]tublic   functions,   without   restraint   or   shame.      Fortu-  ship 

nately  she  was  as  wise  and  steadfast  in  important  matters  as 
she  was  vain,  capricious,  exacting,  and  unreasonable  in  smaller 
things.  She  rarely  lost  sight  of  her  larger  aims,  and  often 
showed  herself  a  statesman  more  dear-brained  if  not  more 
far-sighted  than  her  ablest  ministers.  Cecil,  her  Secretary  of 
State,  was  eager  to  enlist  England  in  defense  of  the  Protestant 
cause  tipon  the  Continent;  but  Elizabeth  steadily  refused  to 
involve  the  country  in  war  until  she  had  made  her  own  position 
secure  and  had  strengthened  the  resources  of  the  state.  Thus, 
when  the  critical  struggle  with  Spain  could  nolonger  be  avoided, 
she  was  strong  enough  to  win  a  complete  and  decisive  victory. 
Apparently  circumstances,  rather  than  conviction,  shajfed 
Elizabeth's  attitude  toward  religion.  Since  the  Pope  ^^}  ^^^ 
Still  denied  the  validity  of  Catherine's  divorti-.  and  con-  policy 

wai-kek's  eno.   hist. —  17 


274 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots. 
From  a  painting  in  Edinburgh. 


sequently  her  own  legitimacy,  she  couhl  not  accept  the  Pope's 
supremacy  without  facing  the  danger  that  lie  would  award  the 

throne  to  her  cousin,  Mary  Stuart, 
queen  of  Scotland  (see  table, 
p.  263).  She  therefore  induced 
Parliament  to  restore  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  monarch  "as  well  in  all 
spiritual  or  ecclesiastical  things 
as  temporal."  To  supplement 
this  change,  the  revised  prayer 
book  of  Edward  VI.  was  again 
brought  into  use,  and  an  Act  of 
Uniformity  was  passed  (1559)  for- 
bidding any  other  form  of  public 
worship  than  the  one  therein  pre- 
scribed (Appendix  K) ;  but  as 
Elizabeth  wished  to  retain  as 
many  of  her  people  as  possible  within  the  state  church,  she  did 
not  at  first  strictly  enforce  this  law. 

Among  the  clergymen  now  restored  to  their  livings,  were  a 
group  of  men  who,  during  Mary  Tudor's  reign,  had  fled  to  Hol- 
302.  The  laud  and  to  Switzerland,  and  had  there  become  imbued 
Puritans  with  the  austere  doctrines  of  John  Calvin.  These  men 
were  determined  to  create  a  wider  gap  between  the  English  and 
the  Roman  Church  by  "  purifying  "  the  service  of  what  they 
claimed  to  be  superstitious  ceremonies  (whence  the  name 
Puritans) ;  among  these  were  the  wearing  of  a  white  surplice 
by  officiating  clergymen,  the  kneeling  at  the  reception  of  the 
sacrament,  and  the  keeping  of  fast  and  festival  days.  The 
zeal  of  these  Puritans  defeated  Elizabeth's  policy  of  broad 
toleration  within  the  church,  and  compelled  her  to  enforce 
more  strictly  the  Act  of  Uniformity ;  and  as  a  result  many 
Puritans,  toward  the  end  of  her  reign,  abandoned  the  church 
and  gathered  secretly  in  so-called  "  conventicles  "  for  religious 


roi.rruAL  ciiisis  imm;!;  kijzakkiii  275 

worship  ill  accordance  with  their  own  convictions,  thus  form- 
ing the  first  of  many  sects  of  "dissenters." 

Many  of  the  returned  refugees  were  adherents  of  the  type 
of  church  organization  worked  out  by  Calvin  under  the  name 

of  Presbyterianism.     This  was  essentially  a  democratic     „ 

.         ,.   ,      ,  ,  303    Pres- 

system,  in  which  the  control  was  vested  in  "  presbyters,"        byterian 

a  body  of  ministers  and  lay  elders  elected  by  the  mem-  radicals 
bers  of  the  congregations.  Such  a  system  appealed  to  that 
portion  of  the  English  people  who  had  departed  furthest  from 
Catholicism,  but  it  was  wholly  unacceptable  to  Elizabeth  and 
probably  to  a  large  majority  of  the  people.  For  a  time,  there- 
fore, the  Puritans  were  content  to  hold  Calvin's  religious  doc- 
trines, while  accepting  the  existing  form  of  church  government; 
but  as  early  as  1572  there  began  a  struggle  between  the  Epis- 
copal and  the  Presbyterian  type  of  church  organization,  each 
claiming  to  be  based  on  the  Scriptures  and  therefore  binding 
on  all  Christians. 

Meanwhile    Catholics   upon   the  Continent    set  themselves 
the   task   of  winning   back    England    to   the    Koman   Church 
before   it   should   be   too   late,  principally  through   the      304    Con- 
agency   of   the   order   of  Jesuits.      Seminaries   for   the      ..^'^^^Ti'^^ 
/  the  Catho 

training  of  English  Jesuits  were  founded  at  Douay,  at  lie  party 
Klieims,  and  at  Kouen,  whence  devoted  missionaries  were  sent 
to  England  to  labor  secretly.  The  number  of  Catholics  who 
refused  to  take  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  and  to  attend  the 
regular  church  services  was  alarmingly  increased.  Against 
these  '•  recusants "  Elizabeth  proceeded  with  even  more  vigor 
than  against  the  I'uritaiis;  and  Parliament  strengthened  her 
hands  by  acts  which  made  the  presence  of  a  Catholic  mission- 
ary in  England  eriuivalent  to  treason,  and  prescribed  the  death 
]ienalty  for  those  who  assisted  in  celebrating  the  mass. 
Meeting  in  Protestant  conventicles  was  discouraged  by 
jiiinishing  absence  frf)m  churdi  with  heavy  fines,  sometimes 
amounting  to  two  tliirds  of  the  offender's  income.     From  time 


276 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


to  time  Elizabeth  appointed  Commissioners  to  secure  uniform- 
ity in  religion,  and  in  1583  created  a  permanent  Court  of  High 
Commission,  to  enforce  ecclesiastical  law,  to  root  out  heresies 
among  the  clergy,  and  to  punish  immoralities  and  neglect  of 
church  services  among  the  laity.  By  these  measures,  the  mass 
of  the  people  were  held  in  line  until  the  "  Church  of  England 
by  law  established"  became  so  strong  in  organization  and 
tradition  that  neither  Catholics  nor  Calvinists  were  able  per- 
manently to  shake  its  foundations. 

Unable  to  make  head  in  England,  Elizabeth's  enemies  sought 
to  deprive  her  of  Ireland,  where  the  Reformation  had  alienated 

305.  Rebel-  many    of  the   inhabitants   of  the   Pale.      In  1565  the 

lions  in  Ire-   Q'Xeils   revolted   in   Ulster,  and   four   years   later   the 
land  '  •' 

(1565-1579)  Desmonds  drew  all  of  Munster  into  rebellion.  The  Span- 
iards and  the  Pope  aided  the  rebels  with  money  and  men,  and 
before  the  revolts  were  crushed  (1579)  all  JNIunster  was  deso- 
lated, the  Desmonds  were  almost  annihilated,  and  their  estates 
were  distributed  among  Elizabeth's  favorites,  to  be  colonized 
with  English  settlers  (map,  p.  340). 

Probably  the  most  perplexing  problem  of  Elizabeth'^  reign 
grew  out  of  her  relationship  to  Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scotland 

306.  Eliza-  (S-'^Ol)-     In  the  year 
beth's  quar-  of  Elizabeth's   acces- 
rel  with  .         ,, 
Mary  of         sion,  Mary  was   mar- 
Scots             ried  to  the  Dauphin 

of  France,  who  two  years 
later  ascended  the  throne 
as  Erancis  II.  On  thus 
becoming  queen  of  France, 
Mary  challenged  Eliza- 
beth's title  to  the  throne 
by  assuming  the  arms  and 
style  of  queen  of  England.  By  this  time  Presbyterianism 
had  spread  through  Scotland  under  the  celebrated  preacher 


Autographs  of  Elizabeth  axd  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots. 

The  R  following  each  name  is  for  Regina 
(queen). 


I'ol.l  riCAI.    CUISIS    INDKK    KI.IZ  A  MKTII 


.Juhii  Kiiox,  and  Mary's  iiiutliLT  (Mary  of  Guise),  -who  was 
acting  as  regent,  attempted  to  suppress  it.  The  cause  of 
Protestautisiu  was  taken  up  by  certain  disaffected  noLles  who 
signed  a  "Covenant"  to  defend  "the  whole  Congregation  of 
Christ"  (lo57) ;  a  rebellion  broke  out,  and  Elizabeth  revenged 
herself  upon  Mary  by  lending  aid  to  the  Scottish  rebels. 
Tlienccfdrth  tlie  enmity  of  the  two  queens  was  never  relaxed. 


M.VKV  Stiakt's  liKDR()o>r,  Hoi.YuooD  Palace,  Edinhukgh. 

In  ir»(JO  Mary's  husljand  died,  and  she  soon  returned  to  Scot- 
land to  find  that  the  Presbyterian  nobles  (called  the  Lords  of 
the  Congregation)  had  induced  the  Scottish  I'arlianient  to   307    Down- 
make  Presbyterianism  the  official  religion  of  tlie  state.     ^    °,c*»^ 
•'  "  of  Scots 

As  >rary  was  an  ardent  Catholic,  Scotland  was  soon  torn  (1568) 

by  factional  strife  between  the  supporters  of  the  queen  and 
those  of  her  half-brother  '^^urray,  an  ambitious,  domineering 
nobleman,  who  made  use  of  the  religious  dissensions  of  the 
kingdom  for  his  own  ends.  Mary,  who  was  self-indulgent, 
passionate,  and  unscrupulous,  soon  sealed  her  own  fate  by  a 
series  of  mad  and  criminal  actions.     Against  tlie  advice  of  her 


278  THE    TUDOR    MONARCHY 

friends,  she  insisted  on  marrying  her  cousin  Lord  Darnley,  a 
silly,  harebrained  youth,  who  speedily  alienated  her  affections 
by  aiding  her  enemies  to  murder  her  secretary,  an  Italian 
named  Rizzio,  in  her  very  presence.  Mary  sought  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Earl  of  Both  well,  a  man  of  great  wealth  and 
influence ;  but  his  reputation  and  hers  were  soon  absolutely 
ruined,  first  by  the  murder  of  Darnley,  apparently  through 
their  agency,  and  later  by  their  speedy  marriage  after  Both- 
well  had  hastily  secured  a  divorce  from  his  own  wife. 

From  that  moment  Mary  could  boast  of  few  friends  in  Eng- 
land, in  Scotland,  or  even  in  France.    Her  husband  was  driven 
308.  Mary    into  exile  by  Murraj",  and  she  herself  was  imprisoned  and 
EnelanV^     forced  to  abdicate  the  throne  (1567)  in  favor  of  her  in- 
(1568-1587)  fant  son,  now  James  VI.    She  soon  escaped  from  confine- 
ment,  however,    and    again    rallied   her   adherents ;    but   she 
was  once  more  defeated  by  Murray  at  Langside  on  the  Clyde 
(1568),  and  forced  to  take  refuge  in  England.     Elizabeth  was 
now  in  a  difficult  position.     To  leave  her  rival  at  liberty  would 
be  suicidal ;  yet  it  was  hard  to  find  legal  grounds  for  keeping 
her  in  captivity.     She  therefore  decided  to  hold  Mary  under 
temporary  restraint  until  a  commission  could  investigate  the 
circumstances  of  Darnley's  death. 

Without  waiting  for  the  report  of  the  commission  (which 
declared  her  guilty  of  complicity  in  the  murder),  Mary  from 
her  prison  plunged  into  intrigues  against  Elizabeth's  throne 
and  life,  in  which  she  was  aided  by  Spain  and  France,  and  by 
many  English  Catholics.  The  first  plot  aimed  to  secure  the 
marriage  of  Mary  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  leading  Catho- 
lic peer  in  England,  as  a  means  of  uniting  the  Catholics  in 
England  in  her  behalf  and  procuring  an  uprising  in  the  north. 
This  was  crushed  out,  and  the  rebels  were  severely  punished. 
Then  the  Pope  was  induced  to  publish  a  bull  of  deposition 
against  Elizabeth,  and  a  plan  was  made  for  an  uprising  of  the 
English  Catholics  under  cover  of  an  invasion  of  England  by  the 


rnl.iriCAL    ClilSlS    INDKli    KLI/.A  ISK  III  L'7'.> 

Diikt*  of  Alva  with  Spanish  troops  tlieu  engaged  in  (juflling  a 

revolt  in  the  Netherlands.     This  plan,  however,  Avas  postponed 

for  more  than  a  decade,  owing  to  Alva's  inability  to  reduce  the 

Netherlands  to  order. 

The  Netherlands  consisted  of  seventeen  provinces,  clustered 

at  the   mouth   of   the   Rhine;    they    had   formerly   belonged 

to   Charles   the    Bold   of   Burgundy,   and    had    become    309.  Spain 

Spanish    dependencies    through    the    marriage    of    his  ^^^  *^® 

^  Nether- 

grandson    Philip   with    a    Spanish    princess    and    their  lands 

consequent  inheritance  by  Charles  V.  Their  towns  were 
very  wealthy,  Ghent  being  the  greatest  manufacturing  center, 
Bruges  the  greatest  commercial  center,  and  Antwerp  the 
greatest  port,  of  northern  Europe.  These  provinces  were 
very  jealous  of  their  ancient  liberties,  which  received  scant 
attention  from  the  absolutist  raonarchs  of  Spain.  In  prose- 
cuting his  quarrels  with  France,  Philip  II.  quartered  his 
garrisons  in  the  Flemish  towns  on  the  border,  and  further 
drained  the  resources  of  the  provinces  by  grinding  taxation. 
In  the  northern  provinces,  of  which  Holland  was  the  chief. 
Protestantism  wa.s  making  rapid  strides;  and  when  Philip 
introduced  the  Inquisition  to  crush  out  this  heresy,  religious 
and  political  resentment  combined  to  provoke  resistance. 

In  ir)f>7  the  Duke  of  Alva  was  given  ten  thousand  picked 
troops  and  sent  to  reduce  the  Netherlands  to  subjection ;  but 
his  measures  were  so  harsli  as  to  i)rovoke  open  rebellion. 
Philip  was  anxious  for  peace  in  the  Netherlands  so  that  he 
might  be  free  to  attack  England,  and  Alva  was  dismissed 
(1573)  J  but  the  revolt  spread  and  continued  until  1570,  when 
the  Duke  of  Parma,  a  far  wiser  and  bolder  ruler  lliau  Alva, 
succeeded  in  reducing  the  southern  provinces  to  s\il>inissioii. 

The  seven  nortlifiii  pntvinces,  however,  formed  the  Union  of 

Utrecht  (1579),    fiom    which  arose  the    Kepulilie  of  the      310    Eng- 

T'nited  Netherlands,  eomnioidv  known  bv  the  name  (»f  its    ..  ^^'1^^°'^ 

the  Nether- 
leading  state,  Holland.       The  head  of  tin;  new   n'public  lands 


280 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0      10      20     30      40     SO      60 
Republic  of  the  United  Netherlands, 


^>is^ 


■^..^"l-.l- 


The  Netherlands,  about  1650. 

•was  William  of  Orange,  but  he  was  assassinated  in  1584,  and 
the  sovereignty  was  offered  to  Spain's  greatest  enemy,  Elizabeth 
of  England.  The  queen  refused  to  assume  so  great  a  responsi- 
bility, but  agreed  to  assist  the  infant  republic  by  furnishing 
four  thousand  men  till  the  close  of  the  war.     By  this  means 


POLITICAL   CRISIS    I  NDEK    ELIZAIJKTII  281 

sl»t>  kept  I'aniKi  busy  in  tlie  Netherlands,  and  this  staved  off 
invasion  for  three  years  more.  Meanwhile  Parliament,  fear- 
ingj  that  the  assassination  of  William  would  l)e  followed  by 
that  of  Elizabeth,  passed  an  act  (1585)  punishing  with  death 
any  one  "  assisting  or  being  privy  to  any  plot  for  the  hurt, 
death,  and  destruction  of  the  royal  person." 

The  need  for  such  legislation  was  shown  by  the  immediate  dis- 
covery of  a  conspiracy,  organized  by  a  fanatical  Catholic  named 
Anthony    Babington,   for    assassinating    Elizabeth    and      311.  Fate 
making  Mary  queen.     This  conspiracy,  early  discovered         °o?^^^ 
by  the  watchfulness  of  Secretary  AValsingham,  was  al-  (1587) 

lowed  to  ripen  unchecked.  When  the  treasonable  plot  was 
fully  perfected  and  Clary's  complicity  was  proved  beyond 
shadow  of  doubt,  the  consj^irators  were  seized ;  Mary  was 
tried  before  a  special  commission  composed  of  forty  mem- 
bers of  the  Queen's  Council  and  peers  of  the  realm,  and  was 
condemned  to  death.  Elizalieth  shrank  from  ordering  the 
execution  of  a  queen,  and  with  characteristic  indirectness 
tried  to  get  her  ministers  to  act  without  her  express  au- 
thority ;  but  they  refused  to  act  illegally  in  so  important  a 
matter,  and  as  Tarliament  presse<l  for  the  immediate  death 
of  the  "seed-i)lot  of  so  many  conspiracies,"  Elizabeth  finally 
signed  the  warrant  and  ^lary  was  executed  in  February,  1587. 

During  her  life  Mary  won  enthusiastic  adherents  to  her 
cause  in  spite  of  her  crimes,  and  since  her  death  champions 
have  not  been  wanting  to  declare  her  innocent  of  those  crimes. 
An  impartial  scrutiny  of  the  evidence  seems  to  demonstrate 
that  she  was  lawfully  and  justly  executed  under  the  act  of 
1585. 

Altliough  Sjtain  long  remained  on  terms  of  peaceful  trade  with 
England,  about  15<;5  English  sailors  —  half  patriots  and  312. 

half  pirates  —  began  to  attack  the  Spanish  colonies  m  attacks 

America.      In    1580-1581,    Sir    Francis    Drake    ravaged    upon  Spain 
the  Spanish   coasts  of  the  Pacific,  and  brought    home  spoils 


282  THE   TUDOU    .MONARCHY 

worth  half  a  million  pounds.  In  1586  he  sailed  for  the  West 
Indies,  plundered  Vigo,  sacked  Santiago,  and  ravaged  Santo 
Domingo  and  Carthagena.  In  1587  he  performed  a  more  dar- 
ing exploit,  entering  the  ports  of  Cadiz  and  Corunna  in  Spain, 
and  burning  the  store  ships  and  galleys  prepared  for  Philip's 
invasion  of  England.  Nevertheless  the  loss  was  repaired,  and 
in  July,  1588,  Philip  felt  himself  ready  for  the  long-delayed 
invasion  of  England  —  not  now  destined  to  enthrone  Mary  of 
Scots,  but  to  avenge  her  death. 

Although  the  death  of  Mary  destroyed  Spain's  hope  of  co- 
operation from  the  English  Catholics,  the  manner  of  it  incited 
^^^^^U^  to  greater  hostility,  and  vast  sums  were  spent  in 
••  Invincible  preparing  his  "  Invincible  Armada.'*    The  fleet  that  sailed 
rma  a         fiom  Corunna  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Medina 
Sidouia   consisted  of  73  great  ships  of  war   and   76   smaller 
vessels,  manned  by  8000  sailors  ;  it  bore  22,000  soldiers  to  com- 
plete the  conquest  of  the  island,  and  300  clerks,  monks,  and 
priests  to  undertake  the  reestablishment  of  Catholicism.    Philip 
planned  that  this  fleet  should  sail  along  the  English  Channel 
to  the  Netherlands,  where  it  should  take  under  convoy  the 
17,000  Spanish  troops  under  Parma,  and  then  make  its  descent 
on  England. 

Elizabeth,  more  avaricious  even  than  Henry  VII.,  refused  to 
expend  money  in  preparation  for  defense,  trusting  to  diplomacy 
to  avert  war.  Neither  ammunition  nor  ships'  stores  were  pro- 
vided in  sufficient  quantity,  and  the  supply  of  food  for  the 
navy  was  already  running  low  when  the  Armada  started. 
Her  fleet,  largely  improvised,  consisted  of  34  ships  of  war  and 
164  merchant  vessels,  commanded  by  Lord  Charles  Howard, 
Lord  High  Admiral  of  England,  and  officered  by  Hawkins, 
Drake,  and  other  veteran  "  sea  dogs."  The  land  troops,  mus- 
tered to  repel  invasion,  consisted  merely  of  raw  militia, 
under  the  queen's  favorite,  Leicester,  a  most  inefficient 
commander. 


rUMIICAL    CRISIS    INDKK    KI.IZAMi;  III 


2«:5 


Only  about  sixty  sliijis   were  ready  tu  sail   rium   i'lviiimith 
Harbor  when,  on  July  H),  the  Spanish  Armada  was  iirst  dis- 
covered   off    Lizard    Point,  sailing    in    a   great   crescent,    3^4  Attack 
seven  miles  from   tip  to  tip  ;    but  as  the  inferiority  of  on  the 

the  English  in  number  and  weight  of  war  ships  forbade    ,juiy2T^29^ 
them  to  join  battle  directly,  they  contented  themselves  ^^^^' 

with  watching  the  Spanish  fleet  pass  by  "  very  slowly,  though 
with  full  sails,  the  winds  being,  as  it  were,  weary  with  wafting 


\^>'^. 


Thk  Spanish  Abmada. 


From  tapestry  in  tlic  House  of  L,or(l8.    Eii;;raveil  by  the  Smitly  of 
Antiquarians. 

them  and  the  ocean  crushing  un(h'r  their  weiglit;'"  and  then 

they  followed  for  one  entire  week,  contenting  themselves  with 

cutting  off  stragglers  from  the  lini',  and  taking  advantage  of 

the   mishaps  and   mistakes  of  their  enemies.     "  The  English 

vessels  — .  .  .  light,  swift,    and  easily    handled  —  could  Motb-u, 

sail   roun<l   and    round    those  unwieldy  galleons,    hulks,  I'ltited 

1         11  IIP  11  Nvther' 

and  galleys  rowed  by  fettered  slave-gangs.  .   .  .     They  lamis, 

obtained  the  weather  gage  at  once,  and  cannonaded  the  *^'^-  '" 

etu'my  at  considerable  effect,  easily  escaping  at   will   out   of 

range  of  the  .sluggisli  Armada." 

When    tlie   fleet   Anally   cast   anchor   off  Calais,   it    became 

uecessary  for  the  English  to  risk  a  battle  in  order  to  prevent 


284  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

the  threatened  union  with  Parma's   force   at   Dunkirk,      To 
drive  the  Spanish  vessels  out  of  the  harbor,  six  fire  vessels 

315.  Defeat  were  "let  drive  with  the  flood"  at  midnight  on  Sunday, 

of  the  July  29.     The  Spanish  captains  were  compelled  to  "  let 

(July  29,        slip  their  anchors  and  cables,  and  confusedly  to  drive 

1588)  Qj-^g  upon  another;  whereby  they  were  not  only  put  from 

Toinson  their  roadstead  and  place  where  they  meant  to  attend 

Letter  to         ^j^g  comiug  of  the  Duke  of  Parma,  but  did  much  hurt 

Secretctry 

Waisiuf/-        one  to  another  of  themselves."     The  English  attacked 

'^""^  in  the  morning,  and  continued  the  fight  for  eight  hours, 

refusing  to  grapple,  but  pouring  broadsides   of  cannon  shot 

and  musketry  into  their  bulky  opponents.      "  I  tell  you,  on 

the  credit  of  a  j)oor  gentleman,"  says  the  commander  of  one 

vessel,    "that   there   were  five  hundred  discharges   of   demi- 

cannon,  culverin,  and  demi-culverin,  from  the  Vanguard.^'     The 

Spanish  fire  was  still  heavier,  but  ineffective. 

Throughout  the  action  the  English  lost  fewer  than  a  hun- 
dred men,  and  not  a  single  ship,  while  they  inflicted  enormous 
damage  on  the  Armada  —  so  much  that  after  sixteen  of  the 
best  ships  had  been  destroyed  and  many  others  made  unsea- 
worthy,  the  commander  gave  orders  to  retreat  northward. 
The  English  pursued  them  as  far  as  the  Forth,  and  then  desisted 
for  lack  of  shot,  powder,  and  provisions.  Then  fierce  gales 
set  in,  and  while  the  damaged  English  vessels  were  able  to  reach 
shelter  at  Margate  (p.  385),  the  Spanish,  less  manageable,  were 
driven  before  the  gale,  and  wrecked  on  the  coasts  of  Norway, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland,  while  striving  to  return  home  around 
the  north  of  Scotland.  Eleven  hundred  bodies  Avere  Avashed 
ashore  in  Sligo  Bay  alone.  Less  than  half  the  original  force, 
both  of  ships  and  of  men,  reached  Spain  three  months  later. 

The  defeat  of  the  Armada  crippled  Spain  for  the  time,  by 

316.  Con-      draining  her  treasury,  exposing  her  commerce  to  capture, 

„i.^!^^„i  and  insuring  the  loss  of  the  Netherlands.     On  England 

struggle  °  ^ 

•with  Spain     the  effect  was  just  the  reverse.     The  sj)irit  of  nation- 


POLITICAL    ClilSLS    INDKU    KLl/.A  KK  I'll  J85 

ality  and  of  loyalty  was  stimulated  in  the  highest  degree, 
and  old  adventurers  like  Drake  and  the  younger  and  more 
ambitious  tire-eaters  like  Essex  were  eager  to  pursue  the  war 
and  reap  all  possible  advantage  from  Spain's  crushing  defeat. 
The  result  was  a  series  of  attacks  on  Spanish  ports  and  on 
Spanish  shipping  in  which  English  seamen  performed  prodi- 
gies of  valor  and  directed  Spanish  gold  into  English  coffers. 
In  one  of  these  engagements,  ten  English  merchant  vessels 
took  captive  twelve  Spanish  war  galleys  in  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar;  in  another.  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  caught  off  the 
Azores  by  a  fleet  of  tifty  Spanish  vessels,  fought  them  with  his 
one  little  ship,  the  Revenge,  from  three  in  the  afternoon  until 
daybreak  of  the  following  day,  and  yielded  only  under  pres- 
sure from  his  crew,  when  he  himself  was  mortally  wounded. 

I'liilip,  in  spite  of  his  ill  success,  clung  to  the  idea  of  invad- 
ing England,  and  raised  a  second  Armada  (1590)  only  to  see  it 

wrecked  like   the   first   by  a  terrible    storm.     He    then 
..,.,,,  .  317.  Close 

joined  with  the  rope  in  stirring  up  rebellion  in  northern  of  Eliza- 
Ireland,  where  the  people  were  induced  to  range  them-  b«*^s  reign 
selves  under  the  leadership  of  the  Earl  of  Tyrone,  head  of 
the  O'Xeils  in  Ulster.  Elizabeth  gave  to  her  latest  favorite, 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  an  opportunity  to  win  glory  by  reducing  the 
island  to  submission.  His  expedition,  however,  was  wretchedly 
managed,  and  in  a  few  months  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the 
rebels  in  violation  of  explicit  orders,  and  returned  to  England 
without  leave  (1599).  Later,  when  summoned  before  the  Star 
Chamber  to  account  for  repeated  violations  of  discipline,  Essex 
foolishly  attempted  to  raise  a  rebellion  annmg  the  citizens  of 
London ;  but  the  loyalty  of  the  masses  to  Elizabeth  was  now 
invincible,  and  Essex  was  arrested  and  paid  the  penalty  of 
treastm  on  the  block  early  in  KJOl.  His  successor  in  Ireland, 
Lord  Mountjoy,  was  more  able  and  more  mercih'ss.  In  three 
years  he  defeated  the  Irish  and  their  Si)anish  allies,  won  and 
fortified  district  after  district,  and  finally  starved  the  country 


286  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

into  submission.  Meanwhile  the  aged  queen  was  rapidly  fail- 
ing in  health,  and  in  March,  1603,  she  died,  at  seventy  years  of 
age,  having  ruled  England  for  more  than  forty-four  years. 


Elizabeth's  birth,  her  political  entanglements,  the   misfor- 
tune of   her  relationship  to  Mary  Stuart,  left   her  no  choice 
318    Sum-     &^^Q  to  make  Protestantism  the  official  religion  of  the 
mary  English  state.     Circumstances,   too,  by  confronting  her 

with  a  foolhardy  and  over-confident  enemy,  enabled  her  to 
defeat  the  Armada,  and  opened  the  way  to  colonial  empire  and 
commercial  leadership.  But  circumstances  Avould  have  availed 
but  little  had  not  the  qvxeen  known  how  to  profit  by  opportu- 
nity, to  cajole,  deceive,  outwit  her  enemies  on  the  Continent,  to 
win  the  love  of  her  subjects,  to  kindle  a  national  spirit  of 
patriotism,  to  make  her  nation  great  through  her  own  great- 
ness. With  this  knowledge  she  easily  placed  England  in  the 
front  rank  among  the  European  powers ;  and  while  she  ruled 
almost  as  an  absolute  monarch  (there  were  but  thirteen  sessions 
of  Parliament  in  her  forty-four  years  of  reign),  she  gave  to 
England  a  government  "  for  the  people "  in  harmony  with 
Somers's  their  desires.  "  Though  you  have  had  and  may  have 
Tracts, 1. 244  many  mightier  and  wiser  princes  sitting  in  this  seat," 
she  said  in  her  last  address  to  the  House  of  Commons,  "yet 
you  never  had  nor  shall  have  any  that  will  love  you  better." 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  What  was  the  real  objection  of  the  Puritans  to  the  observ- 

topics  ances  mentioned  in  §  302  ?     (2)    What  considerations   made   the 

task  of  the  English  Jesuits  difficult?  (3)  Why  was  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  thought  to  be  necessary  ?  (4)  Compare  the  absolu- 
tism of  Elizabeth  with  that  of  her  father.  (5)  What  motives  led 
Elizabeth  to  aid,  and  what  made  her  hesitate  .  to  aid,  Mary 
Stuart's  enemies  in  Scotland  ?  (6)  Prove  that  Mary  Stuart 
strengthened  her  son's  claim  to  succeed  Elizabeth  by  marrying 
Dajnley.  (7)  What  advantage  did  Elizabeth  gain  from  Mary's 
long  confinement  in  England  ?     (8)  What  geographical  and  racial 


I'OLlllt'AL    ClilSlS    INDKU    KLI/.AMK  I  II 


li8" 


conditions  caustil  iho  Netherlands  to  divide  into  two  sections? 
(9)  Wliat  varitd  advant;ii;fs  did  Klizabi-lli  ^'ain  from  the  continued 
strife  in  the  Netherlands?  (10)  What  previous  monarch  fostered 
immigration  from  Flanders  ? 

(11)  A  character  sketch  of  Elizabeth  from  contemporary  sources. 
(12)  Sir  Philip  Sidney  in  the  Netherlands.  (1:5)  Bull  baiting,  bear 
baiting,  and  other  amusements  of  the  period.  (14)  The  entertain- 
ment of  Elizabeth  at  Leicester's  castles  as  depicted  in  Scott's  Keuil- 
ir,,r(li.  (15)  The  work  of  John  Knox  in  Scotland.  (Iti)  Drake's 
voyage  around  the  world.     (17)  Incidents  of  the  Armada. 


Search 
topics 


REFERENCES 


Secondary 
authorities 


See  maps,  pp.  280,  384,  385;   Gardiner.  School  Adas,  maps  23-    Geography 
20  ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  maps  xxxi.  lii. ;  Reich,  Xew  Students'' 
Atlas,  maps  21,  22,  23. 

Bright,  Ilistxry  of  Eiif/laml,  11.488-580;  Gardiner,  Stiidoirs 
History,  chs.  xxviii.-xxx. ;  Han.sonie,  Advanced  History,  448-482  ; 
Green,  Short  History,  300-420,  442-474,  —  History  of  th<'  Eni/lish 
Pcoplf,  bk.  vi.  chs.  iii.-vi. ;  Montague,  Inlrodnction  to  Constitutional 
History,  ch.  viii. ;  Creighton.  Af/<'  of  Elizabeth  ;  Brewer,  Student's 
Hume,  chs.  xviii.  xix.  ;  Lingard,  History  of  England,  V. ;  Froude, 
History  of  England,  VII.-XII.,  —  English  Seamen  in  the  Sixteenth 
Century  ;  Beesly,  Queen  Elizaheth  ;  Maoaulay,  Lord  Burleigh  (es- 
say); Motley,  The  ['nited  Xefherlands,  ch.  xix.;  Rawson,  Ticenty 
Naval  Battles,  chs.  iv.  v.  ;  Corbett,  Drake  and  the  Tudor  Xary,  — 
TTie  Successors  of  Drake  ;  L.  Creighton.  Sir  \V(dter  Raleigh  ;  Rodd, 
Sir  Walter  lialeigh,  chs.  i.-iii.  v.  vi.  viii.-x.  ;  Taswell-Langmead, 
Constitutional  History,  ch.  xii.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xxiv.-xxx. ; 
McCarthy,  Outline  of  Irish  History,  ch.  iv. ;  Burton.  History  of 
Scotland,  IV.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scothntd,  II.  ch.s.  iv.-xiii. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  107-180  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  61-64  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
ch.  ix.  ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  Ixxvii.- 
Ixxxvii.  ;  Prothero.  Statutes  and  Constitutional  Documents,  1-240; 
Cunninghanj,  English  History  from  Original  Sources,  1558-UjO.H; 
Henderson,  Side  Lights  on  English  Histor>t,  1-:J2;  Rait.  Mary 
Qut-en  of  Scots;  Payne,  Voyages  of  Elizatiethan  Seamen.  See 
New  England  Mistorj-  Teachers'  As.socialion,  Syllahus,  248-240, — 
Historical  Sources,  §  55. 

C.  Kingsley,  M'estirard  Ho  ;  Scott.  Kmilworth,  —  The  Abbot ; 
Tennyson,  The  Revenge  ;  Yonge,  Unknown  to  History. 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


CHAPTER  XX. 

INTELLECTUAL,  INDUSTRIAL,  AND  SOCIAL  PROGRESS 
UNDER  THE  TUDORS 


With  the  restoration  of  order  under  the  Tudors,  the  Renais- 
sance impulse  toward   intellectual  culture   reached  England. 
319.  The       Then,  enriched  by  the  wealth  drawn  from  new  industries 
revival  of      ^„   pillaged  from  Spain,  Englishmen   like   the   Earl   of 
England        Surrey,  Thomas  Earl  of  Sackville,  and  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney visited  Prance  and  Italy  to  acquire   the   culture  of   the 


Blundkll's  School,  Tiverton,  founded  1604. 
Built  partly  of  timbers  from  the  Armada,  gathered  on  the  Coruish  coast. 

Continent.  Others  studied  at  Oxford  with  foreign-trained 
teachers  like  Grocyn  and  Colet,  the  first  English  teachers  of 
Greek ;  or  at  Cambridge  with  Erasmus,  a  Dutch  scholar  who 
had   been   attracted  to  England   by  the  new  enthusiasm   for 

288 


PROGRESS    L'NDKIi   THE   TLDORS  289 

learning.  In  1509-1512,  Dean  C'olet  founded  St.  1 'an r.s  School 
for  the  instruction  of  one  hundred  and  tifty-three  children  "of 
every  nation,  country,  ;uid  class."  "  .More  gram  mar-schools  Qu^,gj  j^ 
were  founded  in  the  latter  years  of  Henry  \'11I.  than  in  ('reen,ch.vi. 
the  three  centuries  before."  Still  more  were  founded  under 
Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth.  Many  colleges,  too,  were  founded 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  by  Henry  VIII.,  by  Elizabeth,  by 
Wolsey,  by  the  bishops  of  Lincoln  and  Winchester. 

The  curriculuius  of  the  universities  were  broadened  to  meet 
the  growing  requirements  of  "  the  new  learning."  Hundreds  of 
intelligent  young  men  with  delight  sought  the  treasures  .. 

of  learning  stored   up  within   Greek,  Koman,  Hebrew,     new  leam- 
and  Arabic  books  and  manuscripts.     Hundreds  of  others  ^^ 

turned  to  the  stories  of  adventure  which  enriched  the  litera- 
ture of  the  earlier  Italian  Renaissance,  stories  dealing  with  the 
heroic  deeds  of  "Charlemagne  and  all  his  peerage,"  of  the 
crusaders,  of  Trojan  and  Theban  heroes.  Others  busied  them- 
selves with  the  novel  study  of  natural  science ;  and  still  others, 
through  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  its  original  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  Syriac,  tested  the  claims  of  the  Roman  Church, 
now  called  in  question  by  the  jarring  sects  of  the  Reformation. 

The  literature  of  the  period  shows  three  distinct  tendencies: 
a  love  of  romance,  interest  in  the  historic  past,  and,  above 
all,  sympathetic  study  of  the  various  types  of  human- 
ity exhibited   in  everyday  life.      Among  the   romances     mantic  lit- 
should    \io   mentioned    three    jn-ose    writings:    Sidney's  erature 

Arrmliu  was  a  pastoral  romance  describing  ideal  country  life 
as  pictured  in  the  imagination  of  a  dweller  at  Elizabeth's 
court;  John  Lyly's  EujJiues  was  a  treatise  on  friendship,  love, 
and  education,  as  they  inspired  the  enthusiastic  youth  of 
Tudor  England,  presented  through  the  assumed  letters  of  a 
young  Athenian  visiting  England;  Utopia,  by  Sir  Thomas 
More,  chancellor  imder  Henry  VIII.,  was  a  story  in  which, 
in  the  form  of  a  legend  told  by  a  companion  of  Americas  Ves- 
walkkr's  km;,  iuht.  —  18 


290  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

pucius,  More  describes  his  ideal  state,  and  incidentally  throws 
light  upon  the  conditions  of  the  various  classes  in  England. 

Greater  than  these  was  the  romantic  poem  Tlie  Faerie  Queene, 
written  by  Edmund  Spenser  to  celebrate  the  glories  and  de- 
scribe the  history  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  In  the  spirit  of  the 
mediaeval  romances,  Spenser,  under  the  allegorical  imagery 
of  twelve  knights  who  ride  forth  to  perform  feats  of  valor  in 
the  service  of  the  "  Faerie  Queene,"  depicts  the  leading  person- 
ages and  events  of  that  reign  —  Elizabeth  (the  Faerie  Queene), 
Leicester,  Raleigh,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Philip  II.,  etc. 

The  work  of  the  historians  of  the  Tudor  and  early  Stuart 

periods  marks  the  first  important  effort  of  Englishmen  toward 

_.         historical  writing  of   a   modern   type.     It   includes  the 

322.  His-  ^  -^  ^ 

torical  compilation  of  Holinshed's  Chronides  of  England,  Scot- 

literature      ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  Ireland;  the  works  of  Stowe,  whose  book  on 
legal  records  and  obscure  events  makes  him  the  favorite  of  anti- 
quarians; the  narratives  of  explorers  and  navigators  collected 
by  Hakluyt,  and  Bacon's  Life  of  Henry  VII.     The  ambition  of 
the   period  is   illustrated  by  Raleigh's   enterprising   attempt 
to  construct  a  History  of  the  World  from  the  Earliest   Times. 
The  Elizabethan  romancers  and  historians  all  depict  charac- 
ters more  or  less  idealized,  but  the  crowning  glory  of  the  age 
"""^s  *^^®  development  of  the  English  drama,  in  which 
Elizabethan   simple  human    nature  is  made  interesting  for  its  own 
^^^^  sake.     The    Middle   Ages    had   produced  many  miracle 

plays  and  mystery  plays,  but  the  drama  proper  is  probably 
begun  in  the  notable  schoolboy  comedy,  Ralph  Royster  Doyster, 
written  during  the  age  of  Henry  VIII.  by  Nicholas  Udall,  and 
in  the  crude  historical  tragedy  of  Gorboduc,  written  in  15()2 
by  Sackville  and  Norton.  Within  the  following  twenty-five 
years,  the  drama  enlisted  the  talents  of  Marlowe,  Greene, 
Peele,  Nash,  —  all  endowed  with  extraordinary  powers,  —  and 
it  reached  its  culmination  in  the  work  of  Shakespeare  (15G4- 
1616)  and  Ben  Jonson  (1574-1637). 


rUOGUESS    INDKK     IIIK    ITDdUS  l'!*! 

William    Shakespeare,    the    greatest   dramatist  of    modern 

times,  produeed  in  whole  or  in  part  nune  tlian  forty  dramas, 

in  which  he  brings  out  in  the  highest  ilegree  the  interest      324    Wil- 

in  romantic,  in  historic,  and  in  contemporary  humanity.    ^^^™  Shake- 
'  '  r  J  J  spearo 

These  three  interests  correspond  roughly  to  the  three  (1564  1616» 
stages  of  his  dramatic  work.  In  his  earlier  years  the  romantic 
stories  from  mediieval  European  sources,  which  were  then  popu- 
lar, furnished  the  })lots  for  a  series  of  light  comedies  of  which 
the  Merchant  of  Venice  was  the  crowning  work  ;  later  he  turned 
for  dramatic  subjects  to  English 
and  Eoman  history,  to  the  lives 
of  heroes  like  Henry  V.  and 
Julius  Ca\sar;  and,  during  a  still 
later  period,  the  deeper  as})ects 
of  human  life  furnisiied  him  the 
inspiration  for  a  series  of  the 
most  powerful  tragedies  known 
to  literature  —  Macbeth,  Kinfj 
Lear,  Hamlet.  All  these  works 
are  marked  by  an  elevation  of 
thought  and  a  kindred  elevation 
of  style  which  stimulate  the  im- 
agination   and    uplift   the   mind  \Vii.liam  Shakkspeark. 

and  soul.  ^'""'  "'"^  l>:ii"ti'>R  V  P-  Kriniwr. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  thing  in  the  Renaissance  move- 
ment was  the  free  use  of  mediseval  or  classical  models  to  express 
new   ideas.      For   example,   the   "masque,"  a    dramatic   325    Imita- 
])roduction  enriched  with  nnisic,  dancing,  and  architec-        ciasskal 
tural  and  spectacular  effects,  was  imported  from  Italy,  models 

•where  it  had  developed  in  the  later  mediipval  period.  In  Eng- 
land it  was  improved,  beautlHed  with  much  classical  ornament, 
and  frequently  made  the  vehicle  of  nmral  teaching,  as  in  the 
work  of  I'lt-n  .Tonson  and  in  Milton's  early  masfjue  of  Comus. 
The  dramas  of  Shakespeare  and  his  followers  were  constructed 


292 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


on  the  model  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  drama,  with  their  rigid 
division  into  five  acts    and  their  frequent   employment  of   a 

chorus  to  supplement  the 
work  of  the  actors. 

Lyric  forms  like  the  son- 
net, the  ode,  and  the  pas- 
toral were  studied  upon 
the  Continent,  and  after- 
ward developed  elaborate- 
ly by  English  poets.  Blank 
verse,  the  foundation  for 
the  expression  of  all  the 
noblest  dramatic  and  epic 
poetry  in  English  litera- 
ture, was  brought  from  the 
Continent  to  England  by 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  and 
the  themes  of  nearly  all 
the  imaginative  works  of 
the  period  were  borrowed 
from  Continental  sources. 


■^/anehes  i iue  axennj- 
^l^  oUcmaiionibus  J^ortctinenUiu^' 

Swan  Theater,  Bankside,  London. 
From  a  sketch  made  in  1596. 


Students  of  foreign  languages  catered  to  this  love  of  learning 
by  the  zeal  with  which  they  attacked  the  task  of  translating 

326.  Trans-  ^^^^  English  any  important  works  by  foreign  authors. 

lations  Thus  Ariosto's  gigantic  epic,  Orlando  Furioso,  was  ren- 

dered into  English  by  Harrington,  Tasso's  Gerusalemme  Lihe- 
rata  by  Fairfax,  Homer's  Iliad  by  Chapman,  Virgil's  ^I^neid  by 
Surrey.  Most  important  of  all,  in  1535  the  Scriptures  were 
"  faithfully  and  truly  translated  out  of  Douche  and  Latyn  into 
English  "  by  ISIiles  Coverdale. 

The  influence  of  classical  art  on  architecture  was  much  more 

327.  Archi-  tardy.  In  church  architecture  the  Tudor  period  saw  the 
doin^^t"  culmination  of  the  "perpendicular"  type  of  Gothic 
arts  architecture,  with  its  flat  ceilings  relieved  by  "  fan  vault- 


PROGRESS  UNDER  THE  TUDORS 


293 


iug,"  its  depressed  arches,  its  windows  paneled  by  vertical 
mullions,  and  its  characteristic  chivalric  ornaments  —  shields, 
battlements,  the  Tudor  flower,  etc.  Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  added 
to  Westminster  Abbey  in  1502-ir)20,  marks  alike  the  limit  of 
development  of  the 
perpendicular  style 
and  the  end  of  the 
medi clival  period  of 
cathedral  building. 

For  a  time,  col- 
leges, schools,  pal- 
aces, and  homes 
were  to  absorb  the 
attention  of  archi- 
tects. The  wealthy 
were  no  longer  con- 
tent to  dwell  in  the 
huge  barnlike  or 
fortresslike  struc- 
tures of  the  Middle 
Ages ;  and  for  com- 
fort, beauty,  and 
luxury,  the  classical 
type  of  structure 
was  more  suitable 
than  the  Gothic. 
Stately  palaces  and 
mansions  combining 
the  (Jneco-  Roman 
column,  arch,  and  ornamental  forms,  with  the  steep  gable  roofs 
and  round  towers  of  the  Gothic  period,  arose  all  over  England. 
Warmth  was  secured  by  covering  the  walls  witli  tapestry, 
arras  work,  or  ])ainted  cloths,  and  iron  grates  and  chimneys 
replaced  the  smoky  oi)en  fireplaces.     In  the  rich  cloths,  showy 


Gat k  of  i  I .  > 

C'AMllKll) 


.    '  -i    CoLLKOK, 

L'm\  KKSITV. 


Built  l.VW. 


Tyj)0  (if  Itali:in  Koiuiissiince 
architecture. 


294  THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 

ruffs,  laced  doublets,  and  slashed  hose  worn  by  the  nobles,  and 
in  the  more  refined  household  equipment  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, —  where  the  feather  bed  replaced  the  straw  pallet,  where 
metal  table  furnishings  replaced  the  wooden  ware,  —  we  see 
further  evidences  of  wide  general  prosperity. 

This  prosperity  arose  in  part  from    the   rapid   growth  of 

English  manufactures  under  the  Tudors,  due  to  two  causes : 

328.  (1)   The  commercial  centers  of  Europe  were  at  this 

Growth  of      ^^        flooded  with  the  silver  and  gold  brought  by  Spain 
manu-  ®  o  j      r 

factures  from  the  new  world.  As  the  supply  of  money  increased, 
its  purchasing  value  fell ;  that  is,  more  silver  was  required  to 
purchase  a  given  weight  of  wool  or  other  goods,  or,  to  phrase 
it  still  differently,  prices  rose.  The  higher  prices  naturally 
stimulated  production,  and  for  a  time  manufactures  flour- 
ished. .At  first  the  rural  districts  complained  loudly  at  the 
degradation  of  farms  into  sheep  runs.  A  contemporary  poet 
mourns  because 

"  Sheepe  have  eate  up  our  meadows  and  our  downs, 
Our  corne,  our  wood,  whole  villiges  and  townes. 
Yea,  they  have  eate  up  many  wealthy  men,  ♦ 

Besides  widowes,  and  orphan  childeren  ; " 

but  it  was  only  the  less  productive  farms  that  were  converted 
to  wool  growing,  and  the  value  of  the  others  was  soon  increased 
by  improved  methods  of  farming,  —  skillfvd  fertilization,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  etc.,  —  and  by  the  added  demand  for  food  prod- 
ucts in  the  towns.  Thus  farmers  shared  in  the  prosperity  of 
the  manufacturers. 

(2)  England  profited  by  the  distress  of  the  Netherlands 
under  Spanish  rule.  By  the  year  1566,  thirty  thousand  Flem- 
ish weavers  had  migrated  to  England  to  escape  Philip's 
tyranny.  Elizabeth  received  them  hospitably  and  established 
them  in  Sandwich,  Norwich,  and  other  eastern  towns ;  but 
she  shrewdly  imposed  on  them  legal  restrictions  which  com- 


riJitCUKSS    INDKU     TIIK     ITlKiKS 


2\\i') 


])f\\od  t'iu-li  Flemish  family  \o  receive  one  Kn,<;lisli  npprentiee 
aiid  teac'h    him   the  ait  of   making   and   dyeing   wooh'n    eh)th 

and  silk. 

Much  of  the  cloth  thus 
l)roduced  had  to  be  mar- 
keted on  the  Oonti-  329 


nent,  and  this  led  to     ^f^rwui 
a   second    economic  Europe 

change,  the  growth  of 
England's  carrying  trade 
liy  sea.  For  this  work 
England  was  especially 
fitted  through  her  geo- 
gra])hical  position,  and 
through  the  adventurous 
spirit  of  her  seamen, 
trained  in  the  hard  school 
of  the  herring  fisheries 
and  in  the  still  harder  experience  of  the  wars  with  Spain  on 
the  high  seas.  Until  the  middle  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  great 
Venetian  fleet  which  carried  on  Italian  trade  with  Flanders 
also  supplied  English  wants,  touching  at  Southampton,  at  Rye, 
or  at  Sandwich ;  now,  English  merchants  became  their  own 
purveyors.  For  exami)le,  the  ('ompany  of  Merchant  Adven- 
turers (§§  234,  275)  sent  its  own  fleet  of  fifty  vessels  twice 
a  year  to  Flanders,  exporting  annually  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand  [tieces  of  cloth.  Nor  were  its  operations  confined  to 
the  trade  with  Flanders.  Already,  while  three  of  its  ships 
were  searching  for  a  northern  rcjute  to  India  in  l")"),*?,  one  of 
them  had  ventured  as  far  as  Archangel,  on  the  Arctic  coast, 
and  opened  up  to  the  English  the  profitable  Russian  fur  trade; 
now  tliis  lr;idt'  was  developed,  and  tlirongli  Kussia  ('onnecti()n 
was  made  with  the  whale  fisheries  at  Spitzbergen,  and  with  the 
commerce  of  Persia  and  tlie  far  East. 


A  Bkm.man  of  the  17th  Century. 

From  u  br(ia<lside.  The  lielluiun  of 
London,  KJKJ. 


296 


THE   TUDOR   MONARCHY 


Other  English  fleets  became  distributors  of  goods  brought 
from  the  East  to  Lisbon  by  the  Portuguese,  usurping  the  place 
„„-_,,      of  the  Dutch,  who,  after  the  annexation  of  Portugal  to 
with  the        Spain  in  1580,  were  barred  out  of  Lisbon  by  the  hostility 
^^  of  Philip  11.     Finally,  not  content  to  be  merely  retailers 

of  Eastern  goods  for  Portuguese  importers,  certain  English 
merchants  secured  from  Elizabeth  on  the  last  day  of  the  cen- 
tury (Dec.  31,  1600)  a  charter  for  the  "  Governor  and  Company 
of  Merchants  trading  to  the  East  Indies."  Two  years  later 
the  Dutch  organized  a  similar  cojnpany,  which  speedily  out- 
stripped its  English  rival,  and  became  an  aggressive  power  in 
the  far  East.  It  secured  a  foothold  by  treaties  with  native 
princes,  built  forts  and  equipped  them  with  garrisons,  main- 
tained an  elaborate  judicial  system,  and  planted  factories  and 
depots  for  trade  at  all  points  available  for  commercial  intercourse 
.  with  the  interior.  Thus  began  an  epoch  of  commercial  rivalry 
carried  on  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch,  in  which  trading 
and  colonizing  companies  played  the  principal  part. 

All  this  economic  progress  was  greatly  aided  by  Elizabeth's 

financial  sagacity  and  courage  in  giving  to  England  an  honest 

331    Re         ^^^^    stable  coinage.      At    the   beginning  of  the  Tudor 

forms  in  the   period,  it  was  customary  to  coin  each  pound  of  silver  into 

^        four  hundred  and  fifty  pennies ;  Henry  VIII.  had  each 

pound  coined  into  five 
hundred  and  seventy- 
six  pennies,  and  Ed- 
ward VI.  increased 
the  number  to  eight 
hundred  and  sixty- 
four.  Thus  these  two 
kings  reduced  the 
value  of  the  penny 
almost  one  half.  In  1560  all  this  debased  coin  was  called  in, 
and  money  of  full  weight  was  issued  in  its  stead,  the  govern- 


SiLVER  "Crown"  issued  by  Elizabeth,  1601. 


PROGRESS   UNDKK    TIIK   TUDORS  297 

ment  assuming  the  loss  from  depreciation.  In  this  manner 
the  merchants  were  supplied  with  a  reliable  currency. 

The  l)eginniiig  of  English  culnnization  is  due  to  the  states- 
manship of  Walter  Raleigh.     Altliough  erratic  and  visionary 
in  many  respects,  Raleigh  saw  clearly  that  attacks  on 
Spanish  ports  or  vessels  were  a  poor  method  of  fighting    nial  expan- 
Spain.     He  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  conceive  "°^ 

the  idea  of  opposing  Spain  by  invading  her  special  domain, 
the  American  continent,  and  erecting  there  against  Spanish 
dominance  a  lasting  buhvark  by  planting  a  series  of  colonies 
along  its  coast.  Drake  might  plunder  and  burn  ;  but  Raleigh 
preferred  to  plant  and  settle.  In  1585  he  sent  Sir  Richard 
Grenville  to  Roanoke  Island  with  a  colony  of  one  hundred 
persons;  in  1587  he  sent  John  White  with  one  hundred  and 
fifty  more ;  and  although  both  these  attempts  failed,  yet  they 
led  in  the  next  reign  to  the  more  lasting  work  of  the  Virginia 
Company. 

The  Tudor  period  was  one  of  great  material  and  intellectual 
progress.     The  riches  discovered  in  the  new  world  and  the 
economic  progress  made   in  the  old  world  promoted  a     333    g^m. 
more  widespread  diffusion  of  wealth  ;  and  by  its  aid  the  mary 

sons  of  nobles,  of  country  gentlemen,  of  merchants,  and  even 
of  artisans,  were  enabled  to  study  the  ancient  literatures  aiul 
the  newer  arts.  Institutions  of  learning  flourished,  intellectual 
culture  became  fa-shionable ;  the  drama,  the  epic  poem,  and  the 
masque  beeame  naturalized  in  England.  The  manner  of  living 
Ijecanie  more  elaborate  for  the  riili,  and  more  comfortable  and 
healthful  for  the  poor.  The  enthusiasm  evoked  by  tlie  plucky 
fight  of  the  Virgin  Queen  for  her  crown  and  her  life  pervaded 
the  entire  national  lif**,  and  found  a  vent  in  maritime  enterprise 
which  carried  the  P^.nglish  flag  into  hitherto  unknown  regions. 
In  such  associations  as  the  East  India  Company  lay  the  germ 
of  the  present  vast  colonial  empire  of  England. 


298 


THE    TUDOR  MONARCHY 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


TOPICS 

(I)  State  the  various  reasons  why  cathedral  building  declined 
during  the  Reformation.  (2)  Show  how  the  reading  of  romances 
affected  the  life  of  the  time.  (3)  Compare  the  work  of  Grenville 
and  Raleigh  with  that  of  the  crusaders.  (4)  Review  the  history 
of  the  wool  industry  in  England.  (5)  Was  the  turning  of  the 
poorer  farms  into  sheep  runs  on  the  whole  well  or  ill  for  the  Eng- 
lish people  ?  (6)  Would  prices  tend  to  rise  or  to  fall  because  of 
the  debasement  of  the  currency  ?  (7)  Why  in  a  period  of  such 
prosperity  should  vagabondage  increase  ?  (8)  What  influence 
probably  caused  the  exclusion  of  theaters  from  the  limits  of  the 
city  of  London  ?  (9)  What  effect  would  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  into  English  tend  to  produce  on  the  religious  unity  in 
England  ?  (10)  Why  did  not  Spain  plant  colonies  as  vigorously 
as  England  during  this  period  ? 

(II)  Shakespeare's  debt  to  Holinshed's  Chronicles.  (12)  The 
"euphuistic"  fashion  in  speech  and  literature.  (13)  Account 
of  Keats's  sonnet  in  praise  of  Chapman's  translation  of  Homer. 
(14)  A  description  of  More's  Utopian  state.  (15)  The  staging  of 
a  play  in  Shakespeare's  time.  (16)  A  comparison  of  Shakespeare's 
*'ShyIock"  and  Marlowe's  "Jew  of  Malta."  (17)  An  English 
school  of  the  Elizabethan  period.  (18)  References  to  Elizabeth  in 
contemporary  poetry.  (19)  The  intellectual  work  of  Dean  Colet. 
(20)  Why  did  people  wish  to  know  Greek?  (21)  Dress  of  an 
English  gentleman  about  1580.  (22)  Methods  of  carrying  on  the 
cloth  business.  (2o)  Trace  the  origin  of  the  expressions  "pound 
sterling,"  "crown,"  "shilling,"  "penny,"  "farthing." 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  384,  545 ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  map  Ixxxv.  ; 
Hughes,  Geography  in  British  History,  chs,  x.  xi.;  Reich,  New 
Students^  Atlas,  maps  22,  23. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  II.  436-437,  462-487,  570-575 ; 
Gardiner,  Studenfs  Histoi-y,  366-368,  447-474;  Ransome,  Ad- 
vanced History,  423-481  ;  Green,  Short  History,  294-299,  303-320, 
392-401,  420-i22,  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  vi.  ch.  vii. ; 
Gibbins,  Industrial  History,  82-108 ;  Cheyney,  Introduction  to 
Industrial  and  Social  History,  169-176;  Cunningham,  Groivth  of 
English  Industry  and  Commerce,  I.  bk.  v.  ;  Gross,  The  Gild  Mer- 
chant, 148-157  ;  Egerton.  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy, 
ch.  1. ;  Lyall,  Bise  of  British  Power  in  India,  1-12  ;  Lee,   Great 


l'K(»(iKKSS    INDKK     THi:     ITDoUS 


2'J9 


Eiiglishmtn  of  tfif  Sixteenth  Centunj;  Iliiiiie,  Sir  Walter  linliiijh; 
Kodd,  Sir  Walter  lialeigh,  chs.  iii.  iv.  vii. ;  Creigliton,  Historical 
Lectures  and  Addresses,  188-212  ;  Brooke,  Primer  of  Enylish 
Literature,  ch.  iv. ;  Moody  and  Lovett,  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture, chs.  iv.-vi.  ;  Whipple,  Literature  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth  ; 
Lee,  Life  of  William  Shakespeare  ;  Dowdeii,  Shakspere  Primer,  — 
Shakspere,  His  Mind  and  Art ;  Rolfe,  Shakespeare,  the  Boy ; 
Cliurch,  Life  of  Francis  Bacon  ;  Palgrave.  The  Golden  Treasury 
of  the  Best  Songs  and  Lyrics,  bk.  i.  ;  Seebohni,  The  Oxford 
Beformers ;  Lowell,  Essays,  "Spenser,"  "Shakespeare  Once 
More."  See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Sylla- 
bus, 250. 

Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  49-52,  65-67  ;  Kendall,  Sources 
Source-Book,  ch.  x.  ;  Hakluyt,  Voyagers^  Tales, —  The  Xorthirest 
Passage  ;  Raleigh,  The  Discovery  of  Guiana  ;  Harrison,  A  Descrip- 
tion of  England  ;  Hart,  American  Histonj  Told  by  Contemporaries, 
Lchs.  iv.  vi.  ;  More,  Utopia,  and  History  of  Edirard  V.  (in  Koper's 
Life  of  More)  ;  Spenser,  The  Faery  Qneene. 

Barnes,    Drake  and  His    Yeomen ;    Black,    Judith    Shakspere ;    Illustrative 
Henty,  Under  Drake's  Flag  ;  Winter,  Shakespeare'' s  England. 


works 


CHAPTER  XXL 


CONTEST  OVER   THE   ROYAL   PREROGATIVE  (1603-1640) 

James  VI.  of  Scotland,  who  as  King  James  I.  succeeded 
Elizabeth  on  the  throne  of  England,  was  a  man  of  fair  abili- 
^^^^>  ^^^^  very  vain,  and  full  of  a  belief 
first  Stuart    in  the  "  divine  right  of  kings  "  to  exercise 
monarch        supreme  authority  "as  God's  anointed" 
rulers.     This  doctrine  was  thus  set  forth  in  a 
law  dictionary  of  the  time :  '^  He  [the  king]  is 
Coweii,  Thf.    above  the  law  by  his  absolute  power:  and 
Interpreter     though  for  the  better  and  equal  course 
in  making  laws,  he  do  admit  the  Three  Estates 
unto  Council,  yet  this 
is   not   of    constraint, 
but  of  his  own  benig- 
nity, or  by  reason  of 
the      promise      made 
upon  oath  at  the  time  of  his  corona- 
tion. .   .  .      Yet    this    oath    notwith- 
standing, he  may  alter  or  suspend  any 
particular   law   that  seemeth  hurtful 
to  the  public  estate."     With  this  con- 
viction James  was  resolved  not  to  sub- 
mit in  England  to  restraints  such  as 
had  been   imposed   upon  his  mother 
and  himself  in  Scotland,  but  rather  to 
exercise  to  the  full  his  authority  over  both  church  and  state. 
This  attitude  forced  Parliament  to  examine  more  strictly  the 

300 


Heraldic  De- 
vice OF  James  I. 

Tudor  rose  aud 
Scottish  thistle. 


James  I.  in  Hawking 
Costume. 


TIIK    HOYAL    rKEHOlJATlVE    (1003-1040)  301 

limits  of  tlie  royal  "prerogative"  —  the  authority  left  in  the 
hands  of  the  king,  to  be  used  according  to  his  own  judgment 
for  the  good  of  the  nation.     Besides  the  ancient  crown 
rights  over  forests,  wardship,  coinage,  etc.,  it  included      royal  pre- 
such   matters  as  (1)  the  choice   of   ministers;    (2)   the        rogative 
bestowal  of  peerages ;  (3)  the  granting  of  charters  to  guilds, 
trading  companies,  and  town  and  city  governments ;  (4)  the 
regulation  of  trade  by  monopolies  and  duties;  (5)  the  imprison- 
ment of  special  offenders  against  the  state ;  (6)  the  pardon  of 
offenders,  and  the  suspension  of  the  law  in  particular  cases ; 
(7)  the  levying  of  special  taxes  to  meet  extraordinary  demands 
for  money.      It  was  an  essential  part  of  the  theory  of  the  pre- 
rogative that  it  be  used  with  judgment,  and  for  the  good  of  the 
state.     Its  misuse  was  the  cause  of  such  constitutional  reforms 
as  those  of  Magna  Charta  and  the  Contirmatio  Cartarum. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Stuarts  (James  and  his  son  Charles  I.) 
as  to  the  prerogative  included  several  errors.  (1)  They  be- 
lieved that  the  king's  rights  were  absolute  and  un- 
limited,  and  that  he  conceded  certain  limited  powers  to  abuse  of  the 
Parliament  —  instead  of  seeing  that  the  power  of  the  P"^°5a  ve 
nation  was  unlimited,  and  that  it  conceded  certain  lim- 
ited powers  to  the  king.  (2)  They  therefore  stretched  the 
prerogative  to  include  powers  which  Parliament  had  often 
denied  to  the  king.  (3)  They  did  this  in  the  face  of  the  most 
intense  and  widespreatl  opposition.  For  example,  they  per- 
verted the  right  to  regulate  trade  by  levying  duties  into  the 
right  to  raise  an  income  from  duties;  they  used  special  ta.xes 
for  the  same  purpose;  they  used  the  right  of  imprisonment 
to  prevent  criticism  of  their  own  actions;  and  they  extended 
the  right  of  pardon  from  individuals  to  whole  clas.ses,  and 
thus  wholly  nullified  parliamentary  statiites.  In  the  end  they 
alienated  l)oth  Parliament  and  the  nation  at  large,  and  forced 
the  withdrawal  of  rights  hitherto  conceded  to  every  monarch. 

The  first  event  of   James's  reign    foreshadowed   a   schism 


302  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

within  tlie  Church  of  England.  Immediately  on  his  acces- 
sion he  was  confronted  with  a  petition  from  eight  hundred 
^^^  twenty-five  clergymen,  urging  the  abolition  of  the 
religious  use  of  the  surplice,  of  the  cross  m  baptism,  and  of  the 
problem  ^.j^^^^  -^^  marriage,  and  pleading  for  other  Puritan  reforms. 
A  few  months  later  a  conference  of  clergymen  was  called  at 
the  royal  palace  at  Hampton  Court,  to  settle  once  for  all  the 
religious  policy  of  the  government.  Unfortunately  for  the 
Puritans,  their  doctrines  Avere  regarded  as  the  entering  wedge 
of  Presbyterianism,  the  democratic  element  of  which  was  hate- 
ful alike  to  the  officers  of  the  established  church  and  to  the 
king.  Under  a  Presbyterian  system,  he  declared,  "Jack  and 
Tom  and  Will  and  Dick  shall  meet  and  at  their  pleasures  cen- 
sure me  and  my  Council  and  all  our  proceedings  " ;  and  one  of 
the  bishops  declared  that  the  king  spoke  "  by  the  instinct  of 
the  spirit  of  God."  The  only  fruit  of  this  conference  was  the 
authorization  of  a  fresh  translation  of  the  Bible  —  the  King 
James  Version.  By  the  king's  refusal  to  sanction  changes, 
the  Puritans  were  forced  into  the  position  of  a  dissenting  sect; 
and  within  the  next  six  years  hundreds  of  the  clergy  were 
expelled  from  their  livings  for  "  nonconformity "  with  the 
statutes.  "  I  will  make  them  conform,"  said  James  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  "  or  I  will  harry  them  out  of  the  land." 

Within  a  few  months  the  life  of  the  king  was  twice  put  in 

serious  danger  by  conspiracies.     At  his  accession.  Sir  Walter 

338.  Plots     Paleigh  and  Cecil  (son  of   Elizabeth's  great  secretary) 

agamst  ^xe^e   at   odds   over   the   foreign    policy  of   the   govern- 

James  o       j.         ^ 

(1603-1604)  ment  —  Raleigh  clamoring  for  continued  war  with  Spain, 
Cecil  for  peace.  As  James  chose  Cecil  for  his  adviser,  Raleigh 
gave  his  countenance  to  plots  to  seize  the  king's  person  and, 
possibly,  to  place  Arabella  Stuart  on  the  throne;  but  Cecil 
discovered  the  plot,  sent  his  rival  to  prison,  and  negotiated 
a  favorable  peace  with  Spain  in  1604. 

The   fear   of   foreign   invasion   removed,  James  wished   to 


TIIK    KnVAL    I'KKUoii  Al~l\"  K    (10(1.)- 1040) 


30;j 


relax  tlif  laws  aiLjainst  English  Catholics;  l»ut  he  liked  the 
revenue  from  tines  levied  on  Catholic  recusants  (.^20  a  month 
for  each  person  convicted),  an<l  Parliament  compelled  him  to 
enforce  the  laws  rigidly.  Force  begat  force :  in  the  fall  of 
1(104  a  few  desperate  and  revengeful  Catholics  concocted  the 
celebrated  Gunpowder  I'lot  in  order  to  clear  the  way  for  the 
restoration  of  Catholicism. 


To  this  end  they  jdanned 
to  blow  up  the  Parliament 
House  at  the  opening  of 
tlie  session  of  1G05,  when 
the  king,  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  the  archbish- 
ops and  bishops  of  the 
English  Church  would  all 
be  gathered  in  a  single 
building.  A  soldier  named 
Ciuy  Fawkes  was  given  the 
task  of  secretly  storing 
the  necessary  gunpowder 
in  the  cellar  of  the  Hou.se 
of  Parliament,  but  the  plot 
was  betrayed  by  a  rela- 
tive of  one  of  the  intended 
victims,  and  most  of  the 
conspirators  were  seized 
and   punished.     The   dis- 


HkAVEN    DISroVKKINO   Till     (llN- 

powDKH  Plot. 


Frmu  a  print,  KiO.'). 

covery  of  this  plot  led  to  increa.sed  harshness  in  the  execution 

of  the  laws  against  both  Catholics  and  Protestant  dissenters. 

The  temper  of  James's  Parliaments  proved  that  the  i)re- 

vious  Tudor  absolutism  had  existed  only  by  sufferance.  339. 

rf,,         ,  ^      ^  James  8 

The    hrst    one    summoned    ('1('.(>4)    attacked    the   divine-   first  contest 

riglit  theory  bv  asserting  that  its  own  privileu'es  —  such    ^i^li  Parlia- 

■      ■  '  ment 

as  control  over  disputed  elections  and  exemption  of  its   (1604  1614; 


304  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

members  from  arrest  —  were  matters  of  right  and  not  of 
the  king's  grace.  At  a  later  session  it  questioned  the  right 
of  the  king  to  levy  import  duties,  but  was  defeated  by  a 
decision  of  the  courts  in  favor  of  the  king.  James's  extrava- 
gance, however,  forced  him  to  apply  to  the  House  of  Commons 
for  a  large  grant  of  money,  and  the  latter  showed  its  inde- 
pendence by  making  the  grant  conditional  on  a  redress  of 
grievances,  whereupon  the  king  in  anger  dissolved  the  Par- 
liament. A  second  Parliament,  called  in  1614,  proved  equally 
stubborn,  and  was  promptly  dissolved  without  passing  a  sin- 
gle act  —  whence  it  received  the  name  of  the  Addled  Par- 
liament. 

After  the  death  of  Cecil,  in  1612,  James  gave  the  govern- 
ment into  the  hands  of  certain  personal  favorites.     The  first 

340.  Rule  of  these,  a  former  Scottish  page  named  Robert  Carr, 
of  Bucking-  ^^g^g  loaded  with  titles  and  powers ;  but  he  was  soon 
(1616-1625)   discarded   in   favor   of   George  Villiers,  a   Lincolnshire 

gentleman  who  was  made  successively  Earl,  Marquis,  and  Duke 
of  Buckingham.  Although  endowed  with  considerable  talent, 
Buckingham  was  ruined  by  his  too  rapid  rise  to  power.  He 
became  fabulously  rich  in  a  single  year,  largely  through  the 
sale  of  monopolies  issued  under  the  pretense  of  encouraging 
home  manufactures  and  regulating  commerce.  His  ability 
to  secure  titles,  offices,  and  favors  of  every  sort  from  the  king 
easily  won  him  an  enormous  following.  At  his  bidding  coun- 
try gentlemen  were  created  barons,  barons  were  raised  to  the 
rank  of  earls,  lawyers  were  made  judges,  and  judges  were 
given  sinecure  offices. 

Among  the   men  whom    Buckingham  thus  patronized  was 
Francis    Bacon   (1561-1626),   the    most    remarkable   English- 

341.  Fran-  ^^^  of  that  generation.  Able  and  ambitious,  but  un- 
cis  Bacon       scrupulous,  Bacon  first  came  to  power  by  aiding  in  the 

prosecution  of  his  own  patron,  Essex,  for  treason  (§  317).  He 
became  attorney-general  in  1613,  and  with  the  aid  of  Bucking- 


THE    KOYAL   rUEKOGATIVE    (1G01U1040)  305 

liaiu  rose  to  be  privy  councilor,  Lord  Keeper,  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  a  peer  of  the  realm  (^Lord  \'erulani,  1G18 ;  Viscount  St. 
Albans,  1G21).  Unfortunately  for  his  reputation,  he  several 
times  misused  his  otHcial  powers  as  chancellor  to  please 
liuckingham. 

Bacon's  greatness  lay  in  science  rather  than  in  politics. 
He  was  the  author  of  several  philosophical  and  scientific 
works  of  great  power,  the  most  notable  of  which,  the  Xocum 
Organum,  marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  science.  In  this 
he  first  clearly  pointed  out  and  formulated  the  method  of 
scientific  investigation  by  induction  from  observed  facts, 
and  thus  pointed  the  way  to  all  the  marvelous  scientific  dis- 
coveries of  modern  times. 

The  profuse  bestowal  of  titles  and  offices  gave  James  and 
Buckingham  complete  control  of  the  upper  house  and  of  the 
law  courts,  but  it  roused  an  equally  strong  opposition  342.  Oppo- 
among  the  people  at  large.  Consequently  the  Parliament  8itK)n  to 
summoned  after  a  seven  years'  interval  in  IGiM  proved  ingham 
almost  as  difficult  to  control  as  its  predecessor.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War  between  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  states  of 
Germany  was  now  going  on,  and  James's  daughter  I^lizabeth 
was  married  to  Frederick,  Elector  of  the  Palatinate  (a  state  of 
the  Empire  situated  in  the  middle  Khine  valley),  who  was  the 
Protestant  candidate  for  the  emperorship.  Parliament  voted 
a  small  sum  of  money  to  be  spent  in  assisting  Frederick,  but 
the  Commons  seized  this  opportunity  to  make  an  attack  upon 
Buckingham's  traffic  in  monopolies.  Bacon  was  impeached 
and  removed  from  office  on  the  charge  of  accepting  bribes,  and 
the  monopolies  were  canceled  by  the  king. 

No  sooner  had  James  yielded  this  point,  than  certain  mem- 
bers began  to  discuss  his  relations  with  Spain;  for  James     343.  Close 
had  long  been  negotiating  a  marriage  between  liis  son     °    ^^elen 
Charles  and  the  Spanish  Infanta,  and  it  was  suspected   (1621 -1625 1 
that   he  had  made   untlue   concessions  to   T'n'l.inirs    .■iiicitnt 
wvi.kkk's  knu.  hist.  —  in 


306 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


enemy.  The  king  forbade  Parliament  to  discuss  this  subject, 
and  the  Commons  promptly  voted  that  the  state,  the  defense 
of  the  realm,  the  Church,  the  laws,  and  grievances  were  proper 
matters  for  them  to  debate.  James,  in  a  violent  temper, 
went  in  person  to  the  House  and  tore  from  the  journal  the 

leaf    containing    this    resolution 
(1622). 

Much  to  Parliament's  delight, 
the  negotiations  with  Spain  failed 
(1623),  and  Buckingham,  in  a  fit 
of  pique,  turned  to  France,  with 
which  Spain  was  at  war.  A 
marriage  was  arranged  between 
Charles  and  Henrietta  Maria, 
daughter  of  Louis  XIII.  (1624), 
on  condition  that  England  should 
tolerate  Catholicism  and  should 
join  in  a  war  against  Spain. 
James  died  the  next  year  (1625), 
and  Charles  became  king  both  of  England  and  of  Scotland. 

In  accordance  with    Buckingham's  treaty,  a   struggle  with 

Spain  began  in  the  first  year  of  Charles's  reign,  v/hen  a  fleet 

344    "F  ^^^  dispatched  to  Cadiz  to  intercept  the  Spanish  treasure 

eign  policy    fleet  from  the  American  mines.     In  spite  of  James's  large 

income,  the  royal  treasury  was  now  so  empty  that  war 

vessels  could  not  be  procured,  and  the  fleet  was  made  up  of 

merchant  vessels  with  seamen  pressed  into  service.     To  secure 

the  necessary  equipment,  Charles  resorted   to   forced   loans. 

The  undertaking  thus  ill  begun  was  worse  managed ;    and  the 

fleet   returned    home  without   capturing  either   Cadiz  or  the 

treasure  fleet  (1625). 

Two  years  later,  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  who  was  preparing  to 
enter  the  Thirty  Years'  War  as  a  foe  of  the  Empire,  attempted 
to  make  himself  safe  from  attack  at  home  by  depriving  the 


Charles  I. 
From  the  portrait  by  Vau  Dyck. 


of  Charles  I. 


TIIK    IMYAL    PKEROGATIVE    (KJOS-IWO)  307 

Huguenots  of  certain  towns  which  they  were  hohling  as  guar- 
antees of  freedom  of  worship.  Buckingham,  hoping  to  regain 
some  prestige  by  aiding  oppressed  Protestants,  assumed  charge 
of  an  expedition  to  assist  the  Huguenots  besieged  in  Rochelle. 
The  expense  of  this  expedition,  also,  was  met  by  forced  loans 
and  the  illegal  levying  of  tonnage  (tuunage)  and  poundage. 
The  English  fleet  blockaded  the  principal  fort  of  the  besiegers, 
but  at  the  last  moment  the  French  broke  the  blockade.  Dis- 
ease thinned  the  ranks  of  the  English  soldiery,  a  final  attempt 
to  storm  the  place  with  the  weakened  forces  resulted  in  failure, 
and  Buckingham  returned  to  England  in  disgrace. 

^Meanwhile  three  successive  Parliaments  turned  to  account 
]?uckingham's  follies  and  the  king's  necessities.  The  first 
(162.'))  demanded   the  right   to  control  the  expenditure  . 

as  well  as  the  granting  of  money,  and  was  dissolved  by  tion  of 

the   angry  king.     In   the   second  (1G26)  the   Commons  ^ig^*^1628) 
moved   the  impeachment  of  Buckingham;   as  a  result,  "Sir 
Dudley  Diggs  and   Sir   John  Eliot  were  committed   to   „„  .   ,    ,  , 
the  Tower;   and  the  King  came  to  the  Lords'  House,     Aftmioriah, 
and  told  them  of   it;   and  that   he  could  clear  Bucks  ^^'^ 

[Buckingham]  of  every  one  of  the  matters  whereof  he  was 
accused."  The  Commons  persisting  in  the  impeachment, 
Parliament  was  dissolved.  A  third,  summoned  after  the 
failure  of  the  Rochelle  expedition,  prepared  a  "Petition  of 
Right"  (1028),  in  which  were  set  forth  certain  ancient  rights 
of  tlie  English  people  which  had  fallen  into  abeyance  under 
the  Tudor  .sovereigns.  To  safeguard  the^c  rights.  Parliament 
demanded  from  the  king  an  explicit  lu-knowledgnifut  that  it 
was  illegal  (1)  to  levy  benevolences  in  any  form  ;  (2)  to  levy 
a  direct  tax  without  the  consent  of  Parliament;  (3)  to  bil- 
let soldit'rs  upon  the  citizens;  (4)  to  grant  commissions  to 
military  officers  to  execute  martial  law  in  times  of  peace ;  and 
(5)  to  imi)rison  citizens  without  preferring  definite  charges. 
Charles  needed  money  so   much   that,  in    i-.iii>i.]i  r:ifi..n   ..f  a 


308 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


vote  of  five  "subsidies"  (the  amount  of  a  subsidy  was  now 
fixed  at  £70,000),  he  gave  his  assent  to  the  Petition  of  Right, 
and  thus  resigned  the  powers  in  dispute  for  himself  and  his 
successors  forever.  Parliament  unwisely  omitted  to  include  in 
the  list  the  arbitrary  levying  of  tonnage  and  poundage,  and 
when,  later  in  the  session,  it  remonstrated  against  this  prac- 
tice also,  it  was  prorogued. 

Buckingham,  anxious  to  repair  his  damaged  military  reputa- 
tion, planned  a  fresh  expedition  for  the  relief  of  Rpchelle,  but 

o-./.    TN    XI.    on   the   eve  of  his 

346.  Death 

of  Bucking-   departure   (August, 

ham  (1628)  -^g28)  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  a  disappointed 
and  revengeful  officer  of 
his  previous  expedition. 
Rochelle  surrendered  to 
Louis  five  days  later,  and 
Charles's  foreign  policy 
was  thus  shown  to  be  hope- 
less. In  January,  1629, 
Charles  reassembled  Par- 
liament, which  renewed 
its  attack  upon  tonnage 
and  poundage  with  still 
more  spirit  than  before. 

In  March,  Pym,  Hamp- 
den, and  Sir  John  Eliot 

347.  Pro-      prepared  a  remonstrance  against  this  abuse.    The  speaker, 

test  against  ^y  ^i^q  king's  order,  refused  to  read  it  to  the  House,  and 
arbitrary  .  • ,  i      i     i  t 

taxation        attempted  to  adjourn  the  meeting,  but  was  forcibly  held 

(1629)  down  in  the  chair  by  Holies  and  Valentine.     The  door 

was  locked,  so  that  the  king's  officers  outside  could  not  enter 

with  a  notice  of  prorogation,  nor  the  members  disperse.    Then, 

as  the  speaker  and  his  clerk  both  refused  to  read  the  resolu- 


GeoRGE    VlLLIERS,    FiRST   DUKE   UF 

Buckingham. 

From  the  portrait  liy  Cornelius  Jansen, 
at  Hamilton  Court. 


TIIK    i;()VAL   rUKKntiA'lIVE    (l(ii»;;-l(]4u)  i}(J9 

tion,  Sir  John  Eliot  read  it  amid  shouts  of  applause;  and  the 
Commons  voted  with  enthusiasm  that  whoever  sought  to  hrinjj 
about  innovations  in  religion  or  introduce  therein  any  unortho- 
dox influence,  whoever  advised  the  king  to  levy  tunnage  and 
poundage  witliout  a  grant  from  the  Commons,  and  whoever 
voluntarily  paid  tonnage  and  poundage,  was  an  enemy  to  the 
kingdom  and  a  traitor  to  the  liberties  of  the  English  people. 
The  dissolution  of  this  third  Parliament,  eight  days  later, 
ended  the  first  stage  in  the  contest  between  crown  and  Tar- 
liament. 

Charles  now  determined  to  rule  without  Parliaments,  a 
plan  impossible  unless  he  could  raise  money  for  court  and 
military  expenses  outside  of  parliamentary  grants ;  for   348.  Period 

this  reason  he  made  use  of  arbitrarv  measures,  enforced      of  absolu- 

'  tism 

by  subservient  judges  and  by  the  king's  Court  of  the    (1629-1640) 

Star  Chamber.  Even  before  the  dissolution  of  Parliament, 
he  caused  the  arrest  of  a  merchant  who  refused  to  pay  the 
tonnage  and  poundage  tax ;  three  days  after  that  dissolution, 
Sir  John  Eliot,  Holies,  and  Valentine  were  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  riot  and  sedition.  All  were  fined,  and  Eliot  was 
sent  to  indefinite  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  where  he  died 
three  and  a  half  years  later.  For  eleven  years  (1629-1G40) 
the  king  ruled  without  seeking  the  cooperation  of  Parlia- 
ment, levying  tonnage  and  ])oundage  on  his  .sole  authority, 
and  imprisoning  without  legal  trial  those  who  resisted  his 
will. 

In  all  the.se  measures  Charles  found  a  disastrous  support  in 
Ins  two  chief  mini.sters — Wentworth,  later  Earl  of  Strafford, 
and  Laud,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.     Wentworth  was      349    •jy^. 

a  man  of  brilliant  abilities,  who  held  that  the  safety  of  annyof 

.  '  Wentworth 

the  kingdom  lay  in  government  through  able  and  well-      in  Ireland 

meaning    ministers   like   himself,    rather   than    through    U633-1640; 

Parliaments.      He  had  therefore  joined  in  the  attacks   upon 

Buckingham,  but  declined  to  go  with  Eliot  and  Vyxn  in  their 


310  STUARTS    AND    PARLIAMENT 

attempt  to  place  Parliament  above  the  king.  After  the 
passage  of  the  Petition  of  Right,  he  accepted  a  peerage  from 
the  king  and  was  made  successively  President  of  the  North 
and  Lord  Deputy  for  Ireland  (1633). 

Ireland  was  then  in  a  state  bordering  upon  revolt,  due  to 
the  attempts  of  James  and  Charles  to  colonize  the  northern 
districts  with  English  and  Scottish  settlers  after  an  outbreak 
in  1610  (p.  340),  Wentworth's  farsighted  brain  and  iron  hand 
brought  order  out  of  chaos.  He  made  the  Irish  Parliament 
less  active,  reformed  the  established  church,  repressed  dissent, 
and  promoted  industry  and  trade ;  but  he  ruled  absolutely  with- 
out regard  for  the  law,  and  (as  was  believed)  instigated  the 
.  king  to  defy  and  if  necessary  to  coerce  the  English  Parliament. 
"  The  safety  of  the  state,"  he  said,  "  is  the  highest  law."  The 
success  of  his  system  in  Ireland,  which  he  called  "  Thorough," 
brought  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Strafford  and  the  position  of 
chief  adviser  of  the  king  after  1639. 

William   Laud  was  the  son  of  a  cloth  merchant;  through 

the  friendship  of  Buckingham,  he  rose  in  a  few  years  from 

350.  Tyr-      ^  ^o^^  position   to  the   height  of  power  as  Archbishop 

anny  of  Qf  Canterbury  (1633).     He  was  a  lover  of  system,  and 

Laud  over  .  .  .      . 

the  church     laid   stress    upon   details   rather   than   broad  principles. 

(1633-1640)  jjg  believed  that  regular  attendance  at  church  and  scru- 
pulous performance  of  religious  rites  were  the  best  means  of 
religious  training ;  and  that  the  study  of  doctrine  and  the  habit 
of  criticising  the  governing  powers  were  both  wrong  and  mis- 
chievous. He  therefore  set  himself  rigidly  to  enforce  the 
forms  of  religion  prescribed  by  law  upon  every  citizen,  although 
these  represented  the  ideas  of  only  a  portion  of  the  English 
people,  thus  imitating  Wentworth's  policy  of  "  Thorough." 
(1)  Although  the  strong  conservative  party  in  the  church  was 
suspicious  of  the  least  tendency  toward  Catholicism,  Laud 
enforced  the  ritual  in  its  most  elaborate  form  upon  all  clergy- 
men.      (2)    Although    Protestant    dissenters    were    becoming 


TIIK    KoVAL    I'UEIUKiATlVK    OtiOJ^-lthJO)  311 

numerous  ami  luuie  nidifal,  he  suspended  uud  deprived  of 
their  livings  all  clergymen  who  leaned  toward  Fresbyterianism. 
(.'<)  He  forbade  Englishmen  traveling  abroad  to  attend  Cal- 
vinistie  services,  lest  they  should  bring  seeds  of  heresy  into 
England.  (4)  He  sought  to  check  the  spread  of  dissent  by 
prohibiting  "  gosi)el  preaching,''  i.e.  the  discussion  in  the 
pulpit  of  disputed  doctrines.  (5)  He  gave  color  to  the  rumor 
that  he  was  planning  a  return  to  Catholicism,  by  forbidding 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  and  by  urging  the  common  people 
to  make  confession  regularly  to  their  pastors.  (6)  He  shocked 
the  Puritans  by  issuing  the  so-called  Book  of  Sports,  which 
authorized-  such  amusements  as  archery  and  dancing  for  Sini- 
day  afternoon.  When  a  Puritan  lawyer  named  Prynne,  in  . 
1().'U,  published  an  attack  upon  theater-going  and  criticised 
the  queen  for  taking  part  in  masques.  Laud  caused  him  to  be 
tried  by  the  Court  of  the  Star  Chamber,  and  he  was  condemned 
to  be  pilloried  and  imprisoned,  to  be  dismissed  from  the  bar, 
to  be  deprived  of  his  university  degree,  and  to  have  his  ears 
cropped.  To  e.scape  from  such  tyranny,  thousands  of  Puritans 
emigrated  to  America  (§  354). 

It  was  the  dream  of  both  the  Stuart  monarchs  to  extend  the 
English  Church  organization  over  Scotland,  and  in  1637  Laud 
induced  Charles  to  order  the  Scottish  clergymen  to  use   351.  Laud's 
a  prayer   b»«)k   very  much   like   that  used   in    England.        Scotland 
This  action  immediately  provoked  riots  in  the  churches;  'I637i 

in  Edinburgh  one  hearer  hurled  a  Pible  and  another  a  stool 
at  the  minister,  under  the  impression  that  he  was  saying 
ma.ss.  The  Scottish  nobles,  fearing  that  Laud  might  try  to 
recover  the  church  lands  which  they  had  acquired  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation,  renewed  the  Solemn  League  aiul  Covenant 
(§  30fi),  binding  themselves  to  "  lalwr  by  all  means  lawful  to 
recover  tin-  purity  and  lib«'rty  of  religion  exactly  as  it  was 
established  ami  providnl  before  the  innovations.''  They  soon 
gathered  about  them  the  gentry  from  the  various  counties  and 


312 


STUARTS   AND  PARLIAMENT 


boroughs,  together  with  many  of  the  clergy,  and  organized 
four  permanent  committees  to  protect  their  interests  and  vir- 
tually to  control  the  government. 


HoLYROOD  Palace,  Edinburgh.  > 

Begun  by  James  IV.  in  anticipation  of  his  marriage  with  Margaret  Tudor. 
The  principal  royal  residence  of  the  Scottish  monarchs. 


352.  Scot- 
tish revolt 
against 
Episcopacy 
(1638) 


In  November,  1638,  one  hundred  and  forty-four  of  the  Scot- 
tish clergy  and  ninety-six  representatives  of  the  Scottish 
nobles  and  commons  met  the  king's  representative,  the 
Marquis  of  Hamilton,  at  Glasgow.  Hamilton  became 
offended  at  the  insubordinate  attitude  of  the  delegates, 
and  attempted  to  dissolve  the  assembly ;  but  it  refused 
to  be  dissolved,  and  proceeded  to  depose  the  entire  body  of 
Scottish  bishops,  to  abolish  all  forms  associated  with  Episco- 
pacy, and  to  make  Presbyterianism  again  the  official  religion 
of  the  state.  Nothing  remained  for  Charles  but  to  treat  his 
subjects  as  rebels,  and  the  Bishops'  War  followed. 


TIIK    i;nVAI.    rUEROGATlVE    (IGO-VIG-JO)  :;13 

The  Scottish  leaders  immediately  raised  an   army,  seized 
the  kind's  castles  in  Scotland,  and  advanced  as  far  as  Ber- 
wick.    To  secure  funds  for  the  war,  Charles  decided  to    353    ueet- 
suramon   rurliauient    (April,    1040),   but,  as    it    proved      ingofthe 
intractable,  it  was  dissolved  in  less  than  a  month.     The         Uament 
Scots,  after  fruitless  negotiations,  invaded  England  and   'Nov  .1640) 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  counties  of  Northumberland 
and  Durham.    The  king  was  besieged  with  petitions  for  a  Par- 
liament from  his  peers,  his  council,  and  the  citizens  of  London. 
At  last  he  yielded ;  bribed  the  Scottish  army  to  remain  inactive 
in  return  for  payment  of  -t* 40,000  a  month ;   and  summoned  a 
Parliament  famous  in  histoiy  as  the  Long  Parliament,  which 
was  destined  to  deprive  him  of  his  throne  and  of  his  life. 

While  the  Stuart  monarchs  were  struggling  to  limit  the  rights 
of  Parliament,  there  was  growing  up  in  America  a  group  of 
colonies  in  the  government  of  which  civil  and  religious  354  p^^^ 
liberty  through  representative  government  Wiis  to  be  the  tan  emi- 
chief  corner  stone.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  had  been  ^  America 
marked  by  great  prosperity,  and  at  the  time  of  James  I.'s  (1607-1640> 
accession  capitalists  were  turning  to  colonizing  and  trading 
companies  as  possible  fields  for  profitable  investments.  James- 
to^vn,  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America,  was 
founded  by  settlers  sent  out  by  such  a  company.  Plymouth, 
the  first  jiermanent  northern  colony,  was  founded  with  capital 
loaned  by  members  of  the  same  company  (lOL'O).  P)Ut  the 
Plymouth  settlers  had  been  driven  from  England  by  the 
severity  of  the  laws  against  nonconformists  (1(»07),  and  it  was 
the  religious  and  political  tyranny  of  the  Stuarts  which  later 
pave  the  great  impetus  to  colonization.  During  the  first  year 
that  Charles  ruled  without  a  Parliament  (§  'MS),  a  thousand 
Puritans  emigrated  to  Massachusetts  liay.  Before  l\arliament 
was  again  summcmed,  twenty-five  thousand  more  had  followed 
them  to  ^fassacl  111  setts,  and  several  smaller  colonies  had  been 
founded  in  New  England.    Meanwhile  Maryland  had  furni.shed 


314  STUARTS   AND   PAULIAMENT 

a  refuge  for  both  Catholic  and  Puritan  nonconformists;  and  in 
all  these  colonies  —  even  in  loyalist  Virginia  —  government  by 
the  people  through  their  representatives  was  tirnily  established. 


The  first  Stuart  monarchs  failed  to  realize  that  in  England 
the  government  had  for  centuries  derived  its  powers  from  the 
355    Sum-     consent  of  the  governed.     They  therefore  attempted  to 
m&Tj  exercise  in  defiance  of  the  will  of  Parliament  all  the 

rights  and  privileges  which  the  Tudor  monarchs  exercised 
with  its  tacit  consent.  But  conditions  were  changed :  neither 
foreign  war  nor  internal  treason  now  endangered  the  stability 
of  the  state;  no  extraordinary  dangers  now  justified  the  levy- 
ing of  benevolences  or  forced  loans ;  the  extraordinary  courts 
of  the  Star  Chamber  and  of  High  Commission  were  employed 
to  punish,  not  the  enemies  of  the  state,  but  the  defenders  of 
its  liberties;  those  who  controlled  the  Church  of  England 
represented  only  a  minority  of  its  members ;  the  king's  min- 
isters were  selected  for  their  personal  charm,  their  social 
gifts,  or  their  pliant  disposition ;  the  religious  convictions  of 
the  dissenting  factions  became  constantly  more  extreme  and 
more  sharply  defined. 

It  is  no  wonder,  then,  that  every  Parliament  summoned 
by  James  and  Charles  was  more  determined  than  its  prede- 
cessor to  restrict  the  king's  power  to  a  minimum.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  not  surprising  that  both  these  monarchs 
strove  to  retain  powers  which  they  knew  had  been  freely 
exercised  by  Henry  VIII.  and  his  children  ;  but  they  failed 
to  judge  the  strength  of  the  popular  feeling,  although  it  might 
easily  have  been  estimated  from  the  boldness  of  parliamentary 
debaters  and  the  steady  emigration  of  Puritans  to  America. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  Compare  the  doctrine  quoted  from  Cowell's  Interpreter  in 

topics  g  334  ^^j^j^  jj^g  claims  made  by  Richard  II.  (§  214).    (2)  Were  the  pro- 


IIIK    IJoVAI.    I'KKUoc.A  I  IVK    (ICO.-^-Kilii) 


3ir> 


pos«'tl  Puritan  rtfnrins  in  the  church  service  vital?  (:'.)  Wiiy  was 
it  essential  for  I'arliaineiil  to  safej;uard  its  members  aj^ainst  arrest 
at  the  will  of  the  monarcii  ?  (4)  Whence  arose  the  king's  theo- 
retical right  to  levy  import  dulies  ?  (5)  Find  examples  where  pre- 
vious kings  exercised  similar  rights.  (0)  Show  that  this  theory  did 
not  apply  to  the  Stuart  attempts  to  levy  tonnage  and  poundage. 
(7)  Point  out  the  analogy*  between  Magna  Charta  and  the  Petition 
of  Right.  (8)  Give  instances  where  previous  monarchs  unwisely 
intrusted  the  government  to  favorites.  (0)  Did  the  end  sought 
and  obtained  by  Wentworth  in  Ireland  justify  the  means  em- 
ployed ?  (10)  AVhat  in  the  ceremony  of  coronation  .seems  to  favor 
the  theory  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  ?  (11)  What  was  impeach- 
ment ?  the  dis.solution  of  Parliament  ?  the  proroguing  of  Parliament  ? 

(12)  The  bearing  of  Henry  VIII.'s  will  upon  the  succession  to  Search 
the  crown  after  Elizabeth's  death.  (13)  A  discussion  of  Went-  *°P'*=* 
worth's  theory  of  government.  (14)  Prynne's  case.  (15)  The 
journey  of  Prince  Charles  and  Buckingham  to  Madrid,  to  win 
the  Infanta.  (IG)  The  history  of  the  King  James  Version  of  the 
Bible.  (17)  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  after  1003.  (18)  Milton's  criti- 
ci.sm  in  Lyridas  of  the  English  Church  as  it  existed  under  Laud. 
(10)  Laud's  private  life  and  character.  (20)  Imprisonment  of 
Sir  John  Eliot.  (21)  Did  Charles  try  to  avoid  signing  the  I'etition 
of  Right  ? 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  24G,  884,  385  ;  Gardintr,  School  Atlas,  map  28  ;    Qeojraphj 
Poole,  Ilislorirdl  Atlas,  maps  xxvii.  xxxi.  ;  Reich,  yew  Students' 
A/l'is,  map  22. 

Bright,  Ilistorij  of  Enrjlnnd,  II.  581-<)44  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  Secondary 
History,  4Hl-,-)2;» ;  The  Pitritan  Revolution,  ch.  i.  §  ;{-ch.  vi.  §  3  ;  authorities 
History  of  England,  1003-1043,  \.-\X.  ;  Ransome,  Advanced 
History,  48.V-o37  ;  Green,  Short  History,  474-534  ;  History  of  the 
Emjlish  Peofde,  bk,  vii.  chs.  i.-vii. ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Con- 
stitutional History,  1  i;i-124  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England, 
551-505;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  ch.  xxi. ;  Lingard,  History  <>/ 
England,  VI.  chs.  i.-v. ;  Cordery  and  Phillpotts,  King  and  Coinmon- 
tmj/^A,chs.  i.-iv.  ;  Bayne,  Chief  Artors  of  the  Puritan  Revolution, 
chs.  i.-iv.  ;  Ma-s.son,  Life  of  Milton,  I.  ;  Traill,  Strafnrd;  Goldwin 
Smith,  Three  English  Stiiti'.-<intn  (Pym  and  Hamp<len)  ;  Benson, 
iVilliam  Laud;  Hutlon,  Laud;  Rodd,  Sir  Walter  Rahigh,  chs. 
xii.-xvi.  ;  Macauhiy,  History  of  England,  ch.  i.  ;  Essays  {"■  Bacon," 
**  llanip<len")  ;  Mozh-y.  Essays  (••  Stnifford."  "Laud");  .Mac- 
kinnon,    I'tiion  i,f   England  and    Seotland^    \-s-    Kgerton,   Short 


316 


STUARTS   ANJ>   PARLIAMENT 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


History  of  British  Colonial  Policy,  chs.  ii.  iii.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland, 
xxx.-xxxiv.  ;  Morris,  Ireland,  1494-1868,  122-136  ;  Lang,  History 
of  Scotland,  II.  chs.  xviii.-xxi.,  III.  chs.  i.-iii.  ;  Brown,  History  of 
Scotland,  II.  240-321  ;  Corbett,  England  in  the  Mediterranean, 
1603-1713,  chs.  i.-x. ;  Creighton,  Historical  Lectures  and  Addresses, 
164-187  ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional  History,  405-480 ; 
Traill,  Social  England,  ch.  xiii. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  181-194 ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  68-70 ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
ch.  xi. ;  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  ch.  vi.  ;  Gardiner,  Co7istitutional 
Documents  of  the  Puritan  Bevolution,  pt.  i. ;  Prothero,  Statutes 
and  Constitutional  Documents,  250-438 ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Docu- 
ments of  Church  History,  nos.  Ixxxviii.-xcvii.  ;  Henderson,  Side 
Lights,  33-84  ;  Carlyle,  Oliver  CromwelV s  Letters  and  Speeches, 
pt.  i.  ;  Hart,  American  History  told  by  Contemporaries,  I.  chs.  iv. 
vi.  See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus, 
250-252,  — Historical  Sources,  §  56. 

Ainsworth,  TJie  S2)anish  Match ;  Bates  and  Coman,  English 
History  told  by  English  Poets,  304-316  ;  Browning,  Strafford ; 
Frith,  For  Queen  and  King  ;  G.  P.  R.  James,  Arabella  Stuart ; 
Mitford,  Charles  the  First ;  Scott,  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

USURPATION  OF  TOWER   BY  THE  LONG  PARLIAMENT 
(1G40-1(;42) 

The   members   of  the   Long   Parliament,  both    Lords   and 

Commons,  were   agreed  upon   two  things  —  that   l*arliamt'iit 

shoukl  assert  its  absolute  control  over  taxation,  and  that    355.  open- 

the  king's  evil  advisers,  Strafford  and  Laud,  should  be       ^^S  of  the 

LongParlia- 
stripped  of  their  power  for  harm.     Parliament  assembled    ment  Nov. 

Novembt-r  3,  KUO,  and  eight  days  later  the  Commons  ^'  ^^'*^' 
impeached  Strafford  of  high  treason,  on  the  ground  that  he 
had  "  endeavored  to  subvert  the  ancient  and  fundamental  laws 
of  the  realm  and  to  introduce  an  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  form 
of  government."  To  Strafford's  defense  that  he  had  "com- 
mitted no  treason  against  the  king,"  Pym,  the  leader  of  the 
prosecution,  made  a  significant  reply.  In  attacking  Eng- 
land, he  said,  Strafford  had  really  attacked  the  king,  since 
the  king  was  merely  a  representative  of  the  nation. 

This  was  a  definition  of  treason  not  to  be  found  in  the  law 
books  ;  fearing  that  the  Lords  would  refuse  to  convict  on  that 
charge,  the  Commons  dropped  the  impeachment  and  sul>-      ^^^    ^^^^ 

stituted  a  bill  of  attainder,  which  rerpiired  simjily  that  a   of  Strafford 
,,  1  •     ir  1  i^        1       1  1  1  1         a-nd  Laud 

vote  to  **  attaint"  Ins  life  and  property  should  l)e  passed 

by  both  houses  and  signed  by  tlir  king.  The  rommons  pa.ssed 
the  })ill  readily,  the  Lords  with  reluctance;  and  Charles,  al- 
though he  had  twice  given  his  word  that  Strafford  should 
"not  suffer  in  person,  honor,  or  fortune,"  weakly  signed  the 
bill  to  avoid  a  contest  with  rarlianirnt,  remarking,  a.s  he  did 
so,  "The    Earl    of   Strafford   is  a   happier   man   than   I   am." 

;jl7 


318  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

Strafford  was  at  once  put  to  death,  but  Laud's  fate  was  post- 
poned :  he  was  impeached  on  the  charge  of  "  endeavoring  to 
subvert  the  laws  and  the  religion  by  those  laws  established," 
but  was  permitted  to  remain  in  the  Tower  without  trial  for 
two  years,  while  Parliament  carried  on  its  political  contest 
with  the  king. 

In  February,  1641,  a  bill  was  passed  authorizing  the  elec- 
tion of  a  new  Parliament  at  least  once  in  three   years,  even 
358.  Par-      though  the  king  should  fail  to  summon  one ;  and  three 
liamentary    j^^Q^^^i^g  later  Charles  agreed  that  the  existing  Parliament 
(1641)  should  not  be  dissolved  without  its  own  consent.     Par- 

liament then  began  the  correction  of  abuses.  In  July,  1641, 
it  voted  that  the  levying  of  ship  money,  and  likewise  the  levy- 
ing of  tonnage  and  poundage,  were  illegal.  Later  it  voted  for 
the  abolition  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  the  Court  of  High 
Commission. 

As  the  king  assented  to  these  measures,  the  political  strain 
was  now  relieved,  but  the  religious  problem  was  becoming 
acute.  The  champions  of  the  "  Episcopal  Church  as  by  law 
established "  were  threatened  by  two  dangers :  on  the  one 
hand,  the  growing  strength  of  the  Presbyterians  ;  on  the  other, 
a  return  of  Roman  Catholicism  under  cover  of  the  Laudian, 
or  "  high  church,"  movement.  The  latter  danger  seemed  the 
greater,  since  it  had  the  support  of  the  king ;  and  therefore,  in 
June,  1641,  the  Commons  passed  a  bill  for  abolishing  "root 
and  branch  "  all  archbishops,  bishops,  deans,  archdeacons,  preb- 
endaries, and  canons.  Though  rejected  by  the  House  of 
Lords,  this  bill  is  an  evidence  of  the  progress  of  Presby- 
terianism. 

In  August,  1641,  Charles  visited  Scotland,  and  by  making  con- 

-  cessions  and  scattering  favors  secured  from  Argyle,  the 

Charles's       leader  of  the  Scottish  malcontents,  a  promise  that  they 

^  ^  ^  ®         would  remain  neutral  in  case  of  war  in  England.     The 

king  was  determined  to  fight,  rather  than  to  make  more  con- 


rilK    I,(»N(.    I'AKI.IA.MKNT    (1040-1042)  310 

cessions  to  liis  English  ParlianuMit.  '•  1  li()i)0  y<»ii  will  rt-iiu'iii- 
ber,"  In-  wrote  to  Parliament  on  the  eve  of  his  departure  to 
Scotland,  ''that  I  have  granted  that  the  judges  hereafter  shall 
hold  their  places  during  good  behavior.  I  have  appointed 
the  otKcers,  not  according  to  my  right,  but  according  to  the  old 
customs.  I  Imve  established  the  property  of  the  subject,  as 
witness  the  free  giving  up,  not  the  taking  away,  of  the  ship 
iiiont'v.  I  have  established  by  act  of  Parliament  the  prop- 
erty of  the  subject  in  tonnage  and  poundage,  which  never  was 
done  in  any  of  my  predecessors'  times.  I  have  granted  a  law 
for  a  triennial  Parliament,  and  have  given  way  to  an  act  for 
securing  of  moneys  advanced  for  the  dispensing  of  the  armies. 
I  have  given  free  course  of  justice  against  delinquents.  I 
have  put  the  laws  in  execution  against  Papists.  Nay,  1  have 
given  way  to  everything  that  you  have  asked  of  me." 

It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  Charles  had  submitted  to  more 
restrictions  than  any  other  recent  king  of  England,  and,  if  his 

submission   had   been  genuine,  he  might  have  kept  his 

*  360    Atti 

throne ;  but  he  had  broken  his  word  so  often,  and  had  tude  of 

been  detected  in  so  many  intrigues  to  thwart  the  wishes  ^^'^li^^ent 
of  i'arliament,  that  no  one  would  trust  him.  An  army  was 
sadly  needed  in  Irrlantl.  where  the  natives,  freed  from  Went- 
worth's  iron  rule,  were  in  open  revolt ;  yet  Parliament  dared 
not  trust  Charles  with  an  army,  lest  he  should  leave  the  Irish 
nnchecked  while  he  used  his  forces  to  coerce  his  English 
suV)jects. 

In  October,  1(141,  the  nation  was  inflamed  by  the  news  that 
thirty  thousand  Scottish  and  English  colonists  had  been  mas- 
sacred during  a  revolt  in  Ireland,  and  the  Commons  had       351    the 

to  face  the  (juestion  whether  the  king  should  be  trusted  Grand 

•  1  t  ■         1     11  Renion- 

with  an  army  to  put  down  this  rebellion.    Afraid  to  trust  strance 

him.  yet  fearing  that  the  nation  would  condemn  Parlia-   'Nov., 1641) 

ment  for  inaction.  Vane,  Pym,  Ifampden.  ami  others  induced 

the  Commons  to  pass  the  Orand   Ki-monstrance  (Xovemlx'r  22, 


320 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


MEIiCURW.S 
KUSTICUS 


countrys 
[complaint] 

ll^5i    thejad 

Events 


1641),  which  was  a  public  indictment  of  Charles,  and  a  declara- 
tion of  the  future  policy  of  Parliament.  It  was  a  highly 
prejudiced  statement  of  the  king's  behav- 
ior, but  it  shows  accurately  what  impres- 
sion his  acts  made  on  the  popular  miud. 
Its  two  principal  demands  —  that  the 
king's  ministers  should  be  made  respon- 
sible to  Parliament,  and  that  church  mat- 
ters should  be  referred  to  an  assembly  of 
divines  nominated  by  Parliament  —  were 
promptly  rejected  by  Charles.  London,  a 
stronghold  of  Presbyterianism,  at  once  be- 
came the  scene  of  riot,  and  Parliament 
was  surrounded  by  a  mob  shouting,  '^No 
bishops  !    No  popish  laws  ! " 

At  this  juncture  Charles  determined  to 
strike  a  blow  with  a  weapon  which  he  had 

o^o    rni.         secured  during  his  visit  in  Scotland, 
362.   The  =■  ' 

crisis  (Jan.,  namely,  proofs  that  his  enemies  in 
England  had  supported  the  Scots  in 
the  Bishops'  War.  He  singled  out  for 
vengeance  one  peer.  Lord  Kimbolton,  and 
five  members  of  the  Commons,  Pym,  Hamp- 
den, Haslerigg,  Holies,  and  Strode ;  and 
the  attorney-general  was  sent  to  Parliament  to  accuse  these 
men  of  treason,  in  that  they  had  invited  a  foreign  power  to 
invade  England,  and  had  levied  war  upon  the  king.  As 
Parliament  failed  to  act  promptly,  Charles  determined  to 
make  the  arrests  in  person.  On  January  4,  1642,  he  went  to 
the  Parliament  House  with  a  force  of  about  five  hundred  sol- 
diers, and,  leaving  them  within  call,  he  entered  the  House  of 
Commons,  took  his  place  beside  the  speaker's  chair,  and  an- 
nounced his  purpose  to  arrest  the  five  "traitors."  To  the 
suggestion  that  members  of  Parliament  were  privileged  from 


1642) 


Frontispiece  of  a 
Loyalist  Pam 
phlet,  published 
IN  1685. 


TllK    L()N(i    I'AKLIA.MENT    (1G4U-It;42)  321 

arrest,  he  replied  with  truth,  '•  Piirliameiitaiy  privileges  consti- 
tute no  defense  in  eases  of  treason,"'  and  ordered  Speaker  Leu- 
thall  to  point  out  the  tive  members.  With  rare  courage  the 
speaker,  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life,  asserted  the  rights  of  Par- 
liament in  the  memorable  words,  "May  it  please  your  ^fajesty, 
I  have  neither  eyes  to  see,  nor  tongue  to  speak  in  this  place, 
but  as  this  House  is  pleased  to  direct  me  "  —  a  reply  that  was 
greeted  with  shouts  of  applause  from  all  over  the  House.  It 
becoming  evident  that  the  members  were  not  present  (they  had 
taken  refuge  in  the  neighboring  city  of  Loudon),  the  king  with- 
drew discomfited. 

Six  days   later   Charles  left    London,  resolved  to   put   his 
quarrel   with   Parliament  to   the   test  of  arms.     He  sent  the 

queen   abroad   to   raise   funds   on  the    security    of    his     „„„    „ 
^  *'  363.   Prep- 

crown  jewels,  and  laid  plans  to  secure  a  quantity  of  arms   arations  for 

and  ammunition  collected  at  the  time  of  the  Bishops'  ^^^'I642i 
War,  which  were  now  stored  at  Hull.  The  Commons  tried 
to  take  away  his  power  for  harm  by  demanding  for  Parliament 
control  over  the  militia  and  especially  over  the  appointment 
of  officers.  Charles,  of  course,  refused  to  give  up  this  funda- 
mental power,  and  Parliament  passed  the  Ordinance  of  the 
Militia  —  the  first  bill  to  go  into  force  witliout  the  king's 
assent.  It  authorized  Parliament  to  call  out  the  militia  for 
its  own  defense,  and  to  nominate  the  lords  lieutenants  of  the 
counties  —  the  local  heads  of  the  militia.  In  April  Charles 
was  refused  adnussion  to  Hull,  and  a  little  later  (June  U), 
1642)  he  began  to  issue  "commissions  of  array,"  which  author- 
ized his  friends  to  raise  troops  for  his  supjiort. 

The   tide    now  began   to   turn  in    favor  of  the  king.     The 
unconstitutional  Ordinance  of  the   Militia  gave  him  the  ad- 
vantage of   seeming  to  stand  by   the  ancient  law,  and    364.  Condi- 
Parliament  drove  many  of  the  friends  of  the  establisheil    ''?°*  .*    .  ' 
J  beginning 

church  over  to  his  side  by  punishing  certain  persons  who      of  the  war 
petitioned  that  Kpiscopal  government  be  preserved.     Thus  a 

WALKElt's    ENU.     HIST.  — 20 


322  STUARTS   AND    PARLIAMENT 

sharp  division  of  parties  was  brought  about :  "  Lovers  of 
Ransome,  Episcopacy  and  of  the  prayer-book  saw  their  only  chance 
History  of  q£  keeping  these  in  the  success  of  the  king;  men  who 
554  preferred  any  other  form  of  worship  or  of  church  gov- 

ernment were  equally  forced  to  side  with  the  government." 
Although  the  House  of  Lords  had  passed  the  Ordinance  of  the 
Militia  under  the  pressure  of  the  London  mobs,  yet  a  majority 
of  the  peers  soon  joined  the  king,  feeling  that  the  Commons 
were  bent  on  overthrowing  the  old  constitution.  The  landed 
gentry  of  the  north  and  west  did  the  same,  while  the  citizens 
of  the  manufacturing  districts  in  the  south  and  east  supported 
Parliament,  having  the  technical  advantage  of  controlling  the 
seat  and  the  machinery  of  government. 


The  proceedings  of  the  Long  Pai-liament  were  revolutionary 
from  first  to  last.     It  distorted  the  plain  meaning  of  the  statute 
365.  Sum-     concerning   treason   in   order  to  crush  Strafford;  it  im- 
mary  prisoned  Laud  for  acts  wholly  within  his  authority ;  it 

changed  the  system  of  dissolving  and  summoning  Parliaments; 
it  attempted  to  abolish  Episcopacy  in  the  state  churclj;  and, 
failing  in  this,  it  attempted  to  control  religious  matters  with- 
out reference  to  king  or  Convocation.  It  demanded  control  of 
the  militia  and  the  appointment  of  county  officers.  It  finally 
assumed  the  right  to  legislate  independently,  thus  stripping 
the  king  of  all  authority. 

Some  of  these  acts  were  as  unconstitutional  as  any  of 
Charles's,  since  all  legislation  required  the  joint  action  of  king 
and  Parliament ;  but  the  constitution  provided  no  solution  for 
the  problem  that  now  confronted  the  English  nation :  "  In 
case  of  a  deadlock  between  king  and  Parliament,  which  should 
yield  ?  "  Charles  lost  his  throne  because  he  failed  to  see  that 
this  was  not  a  theoretical  but  a  practical  question,  which 
admitted  of  but  one  answer.  If  somebody  had  to  give  way, 
it  would  be  one  man  rather  than  five  hundred. 


THE   LUN(J    TAKLIAMKNT    (1G4U-Il)42) 


323 


TOPICS 

(I)  Woultl    Pyin'8  definition  of    ••ireasnn"   l)e  more  valid   in    Suggestive 
modern  England  ?     (2)   Why  were  the  Lords  willing  to  pass  a  bill    *°P"^8 

of  attainder  aganist  Strafford,  when  they  would  not  convict  him  on 
impeachment  ?  (:})  Mow  would  the  Koot  and  Branch  Bill  affect 
the  strength  of  the  reform  party  in  the  House  of  Lords  ?  (4)  What 
reply  could  Parliament  make  to  Charles's  professions  in  §  350? 
(5)  What  plans  already  formed  encouraged  Charles  to  reject  the 
Grand  Remonstrance  ?  (6)  Compare  the  alleged  treason  of  Straf- 
ford with  that  of  '-the  five  members."  (7)  Discuss  Charles's 
procedure  in  the  case  of  the  five  members.  (8)  Was  it  wise  for 
Charles  to  leave  London  when  he  did  ?  (9)  What  geographical 
conditions  made  the  possession  of  Hull  important  to  each  party  ? 
(10)  Earlier  cases  of  assertion  of  authority  by  Parliament  over  the 
king. 

(II)  Compare  punishment  by  impeachment  with  punishment  Search 
by  attainder.  (12)  The  part  played  by  Charles's  queen,  Henrietta  *°P"^3 
Maria,  in  his  contest  with  Parliament.     (13)  Compare  an  ordinary 

court  with  the  Court  of  the  Star  Chamber,  as  regards  the  source  of 
its  authority,  the  character  of  the  judges,  and  the  fairness  of  proce- 
dure. (13)  Some  typical  trials  in  the  Star  Chamber  Court.  (14)  A 
study  of  the  Roundheads  and  the  Cavaliers  in  the  Civil  War. 
(15)  Character  of  Pym.  (10)  Was  Charles  L  truthful  in  his  deal- 
ings with  Parliament  ?  (17)  Had  the  king  power  himself  to  arrest 
persons  accused  of  treason  ?  (18)  Contemporary  accounts  of  the 
attempted  arrest  of  the  five  members. 


REFERENCES 

Bright,  History  nf  Fnf/land,  II.  ti44-<)50  ;  Gardiner,  Shidiut^s  Secondary 
History.  521t-.-);{7,  —  77ie  Purit.in  It<rnlution.  ch.  vi.  §§4.  (!.  —  authorities 
Ilintnry  !>/  Enijlnufl,  lfj0.3-164~,  IX.  X.  ;  Ransome.  Aih-nnad  Ilis- 
tury,  .')3ft-.'».V5 ;  Green,  Short  History,  ch.  viii.  §  ti,  —  History  of  the 
Eiiolish  People,  bk.  vii.  ch.  viii.  ;  .Montague,  Elfmeuts  of  Coiistitu- 
tionnl  History,  124-120;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  Em/land, 
695-601;  Brewer,  Studf nt'a  Hiinif,  ch».xx.xx'i. ;  Lingard,  History 
of  Enrfhind,  VI.  ch.  vi. ;  .Macaulay.  History  of  Emjlnnd,  ch.  i. ; 
Corderj'  and  Phillpotts,  Kimj  nnd  Common ir faith,  oh.  v. ;  Lawless, 
Ireland,  ch.  xxxv. ;  Lang.  History  of  Scotland.  III.(WJ-l(t2  ;  Brown, 
History  of  Scotland.  II.  :!22-H2»i  ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitu- 
tional Histonj,  481-o<>4.  .See  New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association,  Syllabus,  2o2-2o3. 


324  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

Sources  Adams  and  Stephens,   Select  Documents,  nos,  195-206  ;  Colby, 

Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  71,  72  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
nos.  76-78  ;  Gardiner,  Constitutional  Documents  of  the  Puritan 
Bevolution,  pt.  ii. ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History, 
nos.  xcviii.-cvi. ;  Lord  Holies,  Memoirs  (1641-1642)  ;  Forster,  Life 
of  Sir  John  Eliot  (letters  and  speeches) ;  Carlyle,  CromweWs 
Letters  and  Speeches,  pt.  i. ;  Clarendon,  History  of  the  Behel- 
lion,  bks.  i.-v. 

Contest  of  First  Stuarts  and  Parliament 

Parliament  claims  jurisdiction  over  elections  to  Parliament  .  .  .  1604 
Courts  assert  king's  authority  to  regulate  customs  duties       .     .     .     1608 

Commons  protests  against  increased  customs  duties 1610 

James  I.  governs  practically  without  a  Parliament  ....  1610-1621 
Commons  impeaches  king's  officers  (Chancellor,  Treasurer)  .     1621,  1624 

Parliament  abolishes  monopolies 1624 

Commons  refuses  supplies 1625 

King  raises  money  by  forced  loans  and  illegal  taxation  .  .  1625-1627 
Commons  impeaches  the  king's  favorite  ;  leaders  imprisoned  .  .  1626 
Commons  refuses  to  act  while  members  are  imprisoned     ....     1626 

Petition  of  Right  ratified  by  the  king 1628 

King  violates  Petition  of  Right  by  forced  loans 1628 

Commons,  protesting,  is  dissolved ;  king  rules  without  Parlia- 
ment      .     ia29-1640 

Commons  dictates  its  own  duration  ;  abolishes  Courts  of  Star 

Chamber  and  High  Commission 1641 

Commons  passes  Grand  Remonstrance  ;  king  attacks  liberty  of 
debate  ;  Commons  takes  control  of  militia  and  royal  castles    .     .     1642 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 


THE    GREAT    REBELLIUX    (1042-1G49) 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  Wiir,  the  wealthy  and  populous 

districts  in  the  south  and  east  of  England  were  on  the  whole 

friendly  to   Parliament,  and  the  rural   districts  of  the 

,         ,  ,        ,  ,  366.  Mill- 

north  and  west  were   loyal    to    the  king.     One  body  of     tary  situa- 

his  forces  was   in  Cornwall,  another  in  York  ;  between 

these  two  regions  lay  a  line  of  important  towns,  Northampton, 


tion  (1642) 


I  EdgehiU 


Battle 


M'l 


■     ' •     AND    I'lKKMKV    AT    THK    BATTLE   OK    KlXiHHILL,    U'A'2. 

From  a  broadside  puhlished  after  the  Restoration. 

Coventry,  Warwick,  and  Worcester,  which  had  been  seized  and 
garrisoned  with  parliamentary  troops  by  Essex,  commander 
in  chief  of  the  |>arliamentary  forces.  On  August  22,  1G42,  the 
king  practically  declared  war  by  raising  the  royal  standard 
at  Nottingliam.  With  the  forces  which  quickly  came  in,  lie 
moved  westward  to  Shrewsbury,  so  as  to  raise  the  Catholic 
gentry  of  western  Englaiul  and  to  secure  the  important  Severn 
valley.  Then  he  undertook  to  capture  London  and  West- 
minster, the  commercial  and  political  centers  of  the  kingdom, 

325 


326 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


England  in  the  Civil  War. 

The  names  within  the  circle  suggest  the  importance  of  Oxford  as  a  strategic 

center. 

and     pressed    southeastward     across    mid-England,    ignoring 
Essex  and  the  parliamentary  army  at  Worcester. 

In  order  to  save  London,  Essex  followed  close  upon  the 
367.  Begin-  king's  heels,  and  forced  his  army  to  turn  and  fight  the 
m-t'  °^  ^°^  opening  skirmish  of  the  war  on  the  slope  of  Edgehill 
(1642-1643)   (October   23,  1642).     Essex,  however,  was  repulsed,  and 


THE   GKKAT    KKBKI,M<>N    ( l«)^-.»-H;41))  o2( 

Charles  advanced  to  the  outskirts  of  London  ;  but  instead 
of  attacking  tl>e  city,  he  remained  inactive  for  a  day  (as  if 
afraid  of  the  forces  which  hastily  rallied  to  the  defense  of 
London),  and  then  retired  unmolested  to  Oxford,  thenceforth 
the  center  of  his  military  operations.  He  thus  gained  the 
advantage  of  a  central  position  from  which  to  strike  unex- 
pected blows  in  any  direction,  but  lost  all  control  of  the  sea 
and  its  opi)ortunities  for  quick  transit,  and  for  cooperation 
from  without  the  kingdom. 

During  the  summer  months  of  1643,  Charles's  nephew,  Prince 
Rupert,  led  a  series  of  brilliant  cavalry  maneuvers  from  Ox- 
ford, and  won  minor  victories  for  the 
king.  The  dashing  "  Cavaliers ''  learned 
to  scorn  the  ill -trained  parliamentary 
armies  filled  with  psalm-singing  Puri- 
tans, whom,  from  the  close-cropped  hair, 
they  nicknamed  "Roundheads."  At 
Shelton,  at  Hath,  at  Devizes,  and  at 
Bristol,  parliamentary  armies  met  disas- 
ters. John  Hampden,  worth  more  than 
many  regiments,  was  mortally  wounded 
in  a  skirmish  with  Rupert's  cavalry  at 
Chalgrove,  near  Oxford  (June  18).  At 
the  end  of  twelve  months,  Parliament 
retained  of  imi)ortant  points  in  the  north 
only  the  fortress  of  Hull;  in  the  west,       A  Cavalikk  Dandy. 

only   Gloucester.     The   sieges  of  those        From  a  seventeenth 

^  '^  rentury  eUwiing. 

two  ]»laces  failed,  however,  and  the  star 

of  Charles  began  to  wane.     Not  only  did  his  forces  win  no 

further  important  succes.ses,  but  the  Scots  were  now  enlisted  on 

the  side  of  Parliament,  and  the  organization  of  an  As.sociation 

of  the  Eastern  Counties  (Norft)lk,  Suffolk.  Es.sex,  Cambridge, 

and  Huntingdon),  under  the  leadership  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 

gave  stability  and  strength  to  the  parliamentary  cause 


328  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

September  25,  1643,  Pym  induced  Parliament   to  make  an 
alliance  with  the  Scots,  so   that   after    February,   1644,  the 

368  The       conduct  of  the  war  was  under  the  control  of  a  Corn- 
Scottish         mittee  of  Both  Kingdoms.     Parliament  secured  this  alii- 
its  fruit         'ATiice  only  by  ratifying  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant, 
(1643)  which  was  signed  by  the  twenty-five  peers  who  still  re- 
mained at  Westminster,  and  by  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
commoners.     By   this    Covenant   Parliament  bound   itself  to 
"make  religion  as  uniform  as  possible  in  England,  Ireland, 
and    Scotland,  and  to   reform   the   Church   according  to  the 
Word  of  God  and  the  example  of  the  best  reformed  churches. '^ 
All  civil,  military,  and  ecclesiastical  officers  in  the  kingdom 
were  required  to  accept  the  Covenant;  and  the  expulsion  of 
some  two  thousand  clergymen  who  refused  to  take  the  oath 
left  the  state  church  entirely  in  the  hands  of  Presbyterians. 

The  Scottish  alliance  and  Pym's  death,  in  December,  1643, 
mark  a  turning  point  in  the  history  of  the  Long  Parliament. 

369  R'         Henceforth  the  strife  was  to  be  between  the  victorious 
of  the  Inde-  Presbyterians  and  the  Independents,  a  body  of  religious 

radicals  already  numerous  in  the  army.  The  Independ- 
ents believed  that  churches  should  be  voluntary  associations 
for  divine  worship,  each  independent  of  all  control  by  the  state, 
or  by  any  authority  outside  of  its  own  membership.  Between 
this  party  and  the  triumphant  Presbyterians  a  clash  was  cer- 
tain to  arise,  and  hence  the  Scottish  alliance  tended  to  discord 
and  weakness,  rather  than  to  strength.  This  was  the  more 
unfortunate  because,  of  those  prominent  in  Parliament  — 
Essex,  Kimbolton  (now  Earl  of  Manchester),  Holies,  Vane, 
Waller,  and  Cromwell,  —  no  one  was  as  yet  strong  enough 
to  take  Pym's  place  as  leader. 

Early  in  1644  the  Scots  advanced  into  England  with  22,000 
370.  Battle  men,  threatening  to  entrap  the  royal  forces  under  the 
Moor^aulv  ^^^®  o^  Newcastle  between  their  own  army  and  that  of 
2, 1644)         Fairfax,  the  parliamentary  general.     Newcastle  fell  back 


Till-:  (.i{i:at  ukkkllion  (Idj-j-kuh)  329 

on  York  as  a  defensive  eonter,  and  Prince  Rupert  hastened 
thither  from  Lancashire  with  18,000  men,  while  Generals  Man- 
chester and  Cromwell  moved  to  the  support  of  Fairfax  with  a 
body  of  troops  from  the  Eastern  Association.  The  two  forces 
met  on  the  field  of'^Iarston  Moor,  seven  miles  west  of  York 
(July  2,  l(i44). 

In  this  decisive  contest  the  royalist  cavalry  at  first  appeared 
to  have  the  advantage,  dispersing  the  Scots  stationed  on  the 
parliamentary  left  wing ;  and  when  the  royal  infantry  charged 
and  routed  the  right  wing  also,  the  battle  seemed  won  for  the 
king.  Still  the  troops  under  Cromwell  remained  unbroken, 
amid  all  the  confusion  and  apparent  disaster ;  at  the  decisive 
moment  they  attacked  the  flank  of  the  victorious  royal  in- 
fantry, and  threw  it  into  utter  disorder.  "  The  Left  Wing, 
which  I  commanded,"  wrote  Cromwell,  "being  our  own      Cromicell, 


horse,  .  .  .  beat  all  the  Prince's  horse;  God  made  them      ,    ,, 

'  '  brother-in- 


Letter  to  his 
brother-in- 
as  stubble  to  our  swords."     "  We   charged   their   regi-  law 

ments  of  foot  with  our  horse,  and  routed  all  we  charged.  .  .  . 
I  believe,  of  twenty  thousand  the  Prince  hath  not  four  thou- 
sand left.  Give  glory,  all  the  glory,  to  God."  On  Rupert's 
withdrawal  with  the  remnant  of  his  army,  the  entire  north, 
including  the  imjiortant  cities  of  York  and  Newcastle,  passed 
under  the  control  of  Parliament.  This  victory  more  than 
balanced  the  losses  in  the  south,  where  Essex  was  penned 
between  the  army  in  Cornwall  and  that  of  the  king,  and  lost 
most  of  his  army  at  Lostwithiel  in  September,  ir44. 

The  battle  of  Marston  Moor  altered  the  balance  of  power  in 
Parliament.    Tlins  far  the  Presbyterians  had  had  the  advantage, 
because  they  were  the  bond  between  the  parliamentary    371    Weak- 
cause  and  the  Scots  ;  but  thev  lacked  the  courage  of  their     °®^^.  °'  '^® 
'  '  "  parliamen- 

convictions.     They  shrank  from  personal  violence  to  the      tary  army 
king,  and  clung  to   the  fiction  that  his   mistakes  were  due, 
not  to  his  own  unfitness  to  rule,  but  to  evil  advisers.     Their 
hope  was  to  prolong  tlie  war  by  inaction  until  the  king  should 


330  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

come  to  his  senses;  they  therefore  dreaded  being  too  success- 
ful, and  their  officers  fought  with  little  or  no  zeal  in  any  con- 
test where  the  king  was  known  to  be  present.  For  example, 
when  Charles  was  returning  to  Oxford,  after  his  successful 
campaign  against  Essex,  he  was  intercepted  by  IManchester  at 
Newbury;  but  jVIanchester  threw  away  a  possible  victory  by 
sheer  negligence. 

The  Independents  therefore  determined  upon  decisive  action. 

In  January,  1645,  Laud  was  taken  from  the  Tower  and  be- 

372.  Reor-    headed.     In  April,  at  the  instigation  of  Cromwell,  Par- 

gamzation     liament  passed  the  "  Self-denying  Ordinance,"  by  which 
of  tne  army  ^  j      o  ^       j 

(1645)  no  member  of   either  house  could  retain   his   military 

command  —  a  painless  method  for  ridding  the  army  of  many 
dilatory  and  inefficient  officers.  Essex,  Manchester,  and  Wal- 
ler were  thus  disposed  of ;  but  by  a  special  vote  Cromwell 
was  reappointed  and  placed  in  command  of  the  cavalry  forces, 
with  the  title  of  lieutenant  general,  while  Fairfax  was  made 
commander  in  chief.  Cromwell  proceeded  at  once  to  remodel 
the  army,  getting  rid  of  weak  commanders,  and  breaking  up 
many  of  the  regiments  composed  of  penniless  adventurers  and 
riffraff,  who  followed  the  war  as  a  profession  and  not  as  a 
"  vocation  from  God."  These  troops  he  replaced  with  God- 
fearing men  who  were  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  ridding 
the  kingdom  of  a  "  godless  "  king,  court,  and  church. 

The  Xew  Model  army,  as  it   was  termed,  was   now  called 
upon  to  bear  the  burden  of  the  entire  war;  for  the  Earl  of 

373    The       Montrose   created  a  diversion  in  Scotland  in  behalf  of 

Battle  of        the  king  by  harassing  the  Highlands  and  threatening  the 

Ns-Scbv 

(June  14,       Lowlands,  and  thus  drew  back  the  forces  of  the  Scots  for 

1645)  the  defense  of  their  o^ti  territory.     Charles  moved  north- 

ward from  Oxford  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunity  thus 
afforded,  and  Cromwell  and  Fairfax  hastened  in  pursuit,  over- 
taking the  king  at  Naseby,  June  14,  1645.  The  New  i\[odel 
was  hardly  seasoned  yet,  and  the  cavalry  on  its  left  wing  was 


Tin:    CltKAT    UKMKM.ION    (lf)42-104n)  831 

routed  and  imrsued  to  a  great  distance  by  Rupert's  invincible 
troopers.  (>u  the  opposite  Hank,  Cromwell,  witli  an  equally 
invincible  body,  routed  the  royal  cavalry;  but  instead  of  pur- 
suing, as  Kupert  had  done,  he  turned  his  troops  against  tlie 
king's  infantry,  who  were  successfully  forcing  the  parliamen- 
tary center,  (.'romwell's  charge  decided  the  day.  The  king's 
infantry  surrendered,  and  Kupert,  returning  too  late,  was  only 
able  to  guard  the  retreat  of  the  king. 

The  battle  of  Xaseby  completed  the  ruin  of  Charles.  In  the 
first  place,  his  sole  important  army  was  destroyed.  Mont- 
rose's Highlanders  retired  to  their  mountain  fastnesses,     374.  Close 

and  though  lesser  divisions  of  the  king's  troops  held  the     °^  .*^.®  ^^^^ 
°  '='  ^  civil  war 

litdd   for  several  months,   no  important   successes   were  (1646i 

achieved.  One  by  one,  these  bands  were  defeated  and  dispersed, 
and  the  isolated  castles  held  by  the  royalists  were  besieged 
and  captiired,  the  last  to  surrender  being  the  castle  of  Raglan 
on  the  border  of  Wales  (August,  104G).  In  the  second  place, 
tiie  finding  of  Charles's  private  papers  after  the  battle  ulti- 
mately cost  him  his  life ;  for  they  contained  letters  showing 
that  he  had  carried  on  negotiations  with  the  purpose  of  bring- 
ing foreign  troops  against  his  English  subjects,  from  Kranc^e, 
from  Lorraine,  and  fniin  Ireland  ;  and  these  were  later  used  as 
grounds  for  his  conviction  and  execution. 

The  Civil  War  proper  ended  in  June,  1645.  Then  followed 
a  year  of  sparring  for  advantage  between  Charles,  the  Parlia- 
ment, and  the  armv,  now  filled  with  Independents.    The 

37&- 

king's  constant  hope  was  to  jimvoke  a  quarrel  between   Charles  and 
his   two   antagonists.     V>y   favoring   Presbyterianism  he  e   co  s 

also  hoped  to  conciliate  the  Scots,  and  to  rouse  their  instiiuit 
of  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts.  In  May,  164(),  therefore,  he  left 
O.\ford  for  Newark,  wliere  the  Scots  were  encami)ed,  and  threw 
himself  upon  their  generosity.  They  slirewdly  conducted 
their  ''hostage''  northward  to  Xewca.stle,  where  he  would  ho. 
safe  from  seizure  by  the  troops  of  the  New  M»Mlel. 


332  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

Negotiations  with  Parliament  were  at  once  begun,  but  led 
to  nothing,  for  the  king  desired  only  to  procrastinate.  "  All 
my  endeavors,"  he  wrote  to  the  queen,  "  must  be  the  delaying 
of  my  answer  until  there  be  considerable  parties  visibly 
formed."  After  six  months  the  Scots  became  convinced  that 
they  would  receive  no  subsidy  from  the  English  so  long  as  they 
retained  possession  of  Charles,  and  that  Charles  would  give  no 
satisfactory  guarantee  for  the  maintenance  of  Presbyterianism 
in  Scotland.  Therefore,  on  condition  of  the  payment  of  the 
£400,000  due  to  them  for  the  support  of  their  army,  they  sur- 
rendered Charles  to  the  representatives  of  Parliament  (January 
30,  1647). 

At  iirst  Charles  was  imprisoned  at  Holmby  House,  and  was 

treated  with  great  consideration,  pending  a  decision  as  to  his 

376.  Usur-    fi^iture   by  Parliament   and  the   army.     The  breach  be- 

pation  of       tween  parties  for  which  Charles  had  hoped  soon  made 

control  by 

the  army       itself  apparent,  but  had  an  outcome  directly  opposite  to 

(1647)  }jjg   -wishes.     Parliament  decided  to  disband  the  army, 

and  then  to  negotiate  freely  for  an  adjustment  of  the  relations 
of  monarch  and  people.  The  army,  however,  refused,  to  be 
disbanded  until  the  soldiers  were  paid,  and  until  it  received 
from  Parliament  some  guarantee  of  toleration  for  Independent 
congregations.  To  rid  itself  of  this  unruly  servant,  Parlia- 
ment hastened  to  offer  extremely  liberal  terms  to  the  king. 

The  indignant  army  saw  that  all  its  labors,  its  bloodshed, 
its  sacrifice,  would  be  in  vain  if  the  king  were  restored  to 
power  under  such  conditions.  June  3,  1647,  Cornet  Joyce 
went  with  a  squad  of  soldiers  to  Holmby  House,  and  removed 
Charles  from  the  control  of  Parliament  to  that  of  the  army 
at  Newmarket.  A  week  later,  a  demand  was  made  that  the 
eleven  Presbyterian  leaders  responsible  for  the  recent  proposals 
should  be  expelled  from  the  House.  London  was  still  dis- 
tinctly Presbyterian  in  temper,  and  a  mob  gathered  to  impress 
upon  the  Presbyterians  iu  Parliament  the  necessity  of  remain- 


THE    (JIJKAT    KKBKLLION    (1»!42-1049) 


333 


ing   firm;    so   the  iiniiy   took  forcible   possession  of   London 

(October,  1(347). 

While   the  army  and   the  I'arliament  were  discussing  the 

terms  to  be  otfered  to  the  king,  Charles  saw  that  the  two  parties 

were   likely  to   come  to  an   agreement.      He   therefore       „^„    ^ 

377.   The 
seized  an  opportunity  to  escape  from  Newmarket,  and  kings 

took  refuge  in  Carisbrooke  Castle  on  the  Isle  of  Wight.  perfidy 

He  then  issued  fresh  proposals,  agreeing  to  accept  Presbyte- 

rianism   as   the   state   religion,   with   moderate  toleration  for 


Cakisbrookk  Castlk,  Isle  of  Wight. 

Tower  erected  by  Anthony  Woodville,  time  of  Edward  IV.    Gateway  erected 
by  Eliz.ibeth,  irm. 

dissenters.  Apparently  peace  was  in  sight,  but  Charles  was 
really  intriguing  with  the  Scots,  and  soon  secured  their 
support  by  a  secret  agreement  to  maintain  the  Presbyterian 
religion  exclusively  in  England  for  tliree  years.  This  act  of 
perfidy  sliowed  conclusively  to  ('romwell  and  the  army  that 
Charles  absolutely  would  not  keep  his  word,  and  that  further 
negotiation  with  him  would  be  utterly  useless. 


SSi  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

The  immediate  result  was  a  four  months'  war  between 
Scotland  and  England.     In  April,  1648,  the  Duke  of  Hamilton 

378.  Final    invaded  England  with  a  Scottish  force,  and  Charles  flat- 
s  age  of  the   ^q^q^  himself  that  his  hour  of  triumph  was  near:  but  the 

COUuSSv 

(1648)  parliamentary  army  grimly  set  itself  to  the  task,  first  of 

crushing  out  this  new  enemy,  and  then  of  rendering  Charles 
incapable  of  further  breaches  of  faith  to  his  subjects. 

The  advance  of  the  Scots  led  to  royalist  insurrections  in 
Wales,  in  Kent,  and  in  Essex.  The  last  was  the  most  serious, 
and  Fairfax  found  himself  obliged  to  settle  down  to  a  month's 
siege  of  Colchester.  Meanwhile  Cromwell  stamped  out  the 
insurrection  in  Wales  in  July,  and  moved  north  to  meet  the 
forces  of  the  Scots.  Nine  thousand  troops  of  the  New  Model 
ranged  themselves  against  the  twenty  four  thousand  of  Hamil- 
ton's force  near  Preston,  August  17,  1648.  A  three  days'  fight 
ended  in  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Scottish  army,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  war. 

During  these  few  months,  Parliament,  freed  from  the  imme- 
diate pressure  of  the  Independents  in  the  army,  fell  once  more 

379.  The       under  the  control    of   the  Presbyterian  party,  anii  now 

army  in         made  fresh  overtures  to  the  king.      Charles,  who  still 

complete 

control  hoped   to  receive  help   from   Ireland  or   from   Holland, 

(Dec,  1648)  gladly  took  up  the  negotiations  in  order  to  gain  time, 
although  he  had  no  intention  of  keeping  any  agreement 
that  he  might  make.  But  the  army  had  already  resolved  to 
call  "Charles  Stuart,  that  man  of  blood,  to  account  for  the 
blood  he  had  shed,  and  the  mischief  he  had  done  to  his  utmost 
against  the  Lord's  cause  and  people."  The  army  leaders  there- 
fore caused  him  to  be  seized  at  Carisbrooke  Castle,  and  kept 
under  their  own  control  at  Hurst  Castle. 

The  Commons  resented  this  action,  and  (December  5)  re- 
solved that  "  reconciliation  shoidd  be  sought  with  the  king." 
The  army  next  day  replied  to  this  defiance  by  Pride's  Purge, 
when  Cromwell  sent  Colonel  Pride  with  a  body  of  soldiers  to 


TflK    GRF.AT    RKRr.IJJoN    (l(;4-_'-l(i4!l)  335 

"  purge ''  the  Commons  of  its  objectionable  element  by  expell- 
ing from  the  House  one  humlred  and  foity-tluef  members  of 
the  com-iluitory  party.  Only  about  fifty-three  menibers,  all 
sympathizers  with  the  army,  were  left  in  the  House,  and  these 
the  royalists  straightway  nicknamed  the  Rump  Parliament. 

A 

VINDICATION 

KING    C  ^^\^£^' 

O  R, 
ALoYAL   Subjects   Duty. 

MANIFESTED 

In  Vindicating  his  Soveraigne  from  thofe 

Afpcrfions  cafl:  upon  Him  by  ccrtaine  pcrfons , 
in  a  fcandalous  Libel,  Entitulcd  , 

The  Ks^Jgs   (Cabinet  Opened* 
Andpublillicd  (as  they  fay)  by  Authority  of  Parliament. 
IVherciimo  is  added^ 

A  true  Parallel  betwixt  tlie  futfenncs  of 

our  Saviour  and  our  Sovcraign,in  divers  parciculars^&c. 

Part  of  thk  TiTi.K-i-AciK  ok  a  Loyalist  Pami'hi.kt.  1»)4«. 

Ten  days  later,  the  Rump  passed  a  resolution  that  tiie  king 

should  b<'  broufjht  to  justice;  and  as  no  legal  agency  existed 

for  the  prosecution  or  punishment  of   the  king,  it  was    380   Aboli- 

voted  (January  1,  1G49)  to  form  a  special  "  High  Court      ^^°°  °'  ^» 

u     T       •       M  •  monarchy 

or   Justice,     an  action    m  which   the   Lords  refused   to  dan  1,1649, 

concur.     Three  days  latt-r  tlie  Hump  attempted  to  justify  and 

legalize  its  action  by  declaring  that  "tlie  peojile  are  under  (Jod 

the  source  of  all  just  power,  and  the  Commons,  being  chosen 


336 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


by  the  people,  form  the  supreme  power  in  England  and  have 

no  need  of  king  or  House  of  Lords." 

Having  thus  removed  the  opposition  of  the  upper  house  by 

abolishing  it,  the  Rump,  on  its  own  authority,  created  a  High 

381.  Trial     Court  of  Justice,  of   one  hundred  and  tliirty-five  mem- 

and  execu-     bers.     On  January  20,  the  king  was  taken  to  his  palace 

tion  of 

Charles  I.       of  Whitehall  in  London  for  trial.     At   the    opening  of 

(Jan.,  1649)   ^j^g  court  only  sixty-seven  of   the  judges  were  present, 
and    the   later   meetings    were    even    more    poorly    attended. 


Front  of  the  Banqueting  House,  Whitehall  Palace. 
Charles  I.  passed  out  through  a  second-story  window  to  the  scaffold. 

The  king,  "  not  only  protesting  against  the  illegality  of  this 
pretended  Court,  but  also,  that  no  earthly  power  can  call 
me  (who  am  your  king)  in  question  as  a  delinquent,"  refused 
to  make  any  plea.  "  It  is  not  my  case  alone,"  he  said ;  "  it  is 
the  freedom  and  liberty  of  the  people  of  England;  .  .  .  for 
if  power  without  law  may  make  laws,  may  alter  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  kingdom,  I  do  not  know  what  subject  he  is 
in  England  that  can  be  sure  of  his  own  life,  or  of  anything  he 
calls  his  own."  After  a  week's  deliberation,  he  was  declared 
guilty   of    having  "  traitorously   and   maliciously  levied  war 


Till".  (iicKAT  Ki;i'.i:i,i,iiiN   (](;}-_>--i(;4!»)  33? 

against  tlif  [n-esent  rarlianieiit  .  .  .  l»y  wliicli  luucli  innocent 
bluoil  of  the  free  people  of  the  nation  hatli  been  spilt";  and 
was  conilemned  to  be  beheaded.  The  sentence  was  carried 
into  etfeet  three  days  later  (January  MO,  1(549). 


The  Great  Rebellion  (1042-1648)  covers  two  stages.    During 
the  first  of  these,  Parliament,  doniiuated  by  Presbyterians  and 
aided  by  the  Scots,  strove  to  secure  from   the  king  guar-     332    sum- 
antees   of    good   government   that   would  justify    it   in  °iary 

restoring  him  to  power.  During  the  second  period,  the  army, 
dominated  by  Independents,  tried  to  make  bad  government  by 
the  king  impossible ;  but  it  was  for  a  long  time  battled  by  the 
lukewarm  attitude  of  the  Presbyterians  and  the  Scots.  At 
first  the  combatants  fought  simply  for  advantage  of  position, 
with  blunted  swords,  as  it  were ;  after  the  battle  of  ^Nlarston 
Moor,  they  were  fighting  to  the  death.  Naturally,  the  party 
that  had  the  atlvantage  in  numbers,  wealth,  command  of  the 
sea,  concentration,  and  definiteness  of  purpose,  proved  victori- 
ous. Its  victory  created  a  dilemma:  to  kill  the  king  was  to 
violate  all  traditions  and  shock  all  sensibilities;  to  leave  him 
alive  was  to  e.\i>ose  the  government  to  a  succession  of  intrigues 
and  revolts.  The  former  alternative  was  chosen,  and  Charles 
the  tyrant  became  Charles  the  martyr. 

TOPICS 

(1)   Why  ilitl  the  towns  favor  rarliainont,  and  the  rural  tlistrirts    Su^^estive 
favor  the  kiiit;?     (2)   Kxplain  on  a  map  the  strateiiic  value  of  ()x-     °P'<^* 
ford.     (3)   Wiiat  did  the  Scotch  hii])e  to  gain  by  allyinj^  themselves 
with  rarliament '.•    (4)  Wliat  off.shoots  of.the  Knglish  Independents 
exist  in  the  United  States  ?     (5)   Did  the  kinfi  commit  trea.son  ? 
(0)  Discu&s   the  ol)jection.s  to   the   treatment  of   Charles   by   the 
Scots.     (7)   Why  did  the  Scots  first  suiTender  Charles,  and  then 
go  to  war  in  his  favor?     (8)   Was  any  action  of   Parliament  re- 
counted in  this  chapter  legal  ?     (ft)   What  powerx  properly  belong- 
ini;ti)tlu'  niriiiarch  did  I'arliamtnt  exercise  between  1  (!•_'•')  ami  Ui4ft? 
(10)   What  ilo  Charles's  wurds  in  refusing  to  plead  indicate  ? 
WAi.KKie'-*   KM..  iii>r.  —  lil 


338 


STUARTS   AND  PARLIAMENT 


Search 
topics 


(11)  A  character  sketch  of  Prince  Rupert.  (12)  Macaulay's 
poein  on  the  battle  of  Naseby.  (lo)  Organization  or  the  Army  of 
the  New  Model.  (14)  The  story  of  Charles's  trial  and  execution. 
(15)  Some  Cavalier  songs.  (16)  The  Ironsides.  (17)  Treatment 
of  captured  royalists.  (18)  Capture  of  the  king's  papers  after 
Naseby.  (19)  Why  did  not  Charles  escape  to  France  ? 
(20)    Queen   Henrietta  Maria  in  the  war. 


Geography 


Secondary- 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


REFERENCES 

Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  maps  27,  29,  30,  31,  33  ;  Hughes,  Geogra- 
phy in  British  History,  ch.  xii. ;  Reich,  New  Students^  Atlas, 
maps  24-26. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  II.  659-687  ;  Gardiner,  Student's 
History,  537-560,  —  The  Puritan  Bevolution,  ch,  vii.,  —  History  of 
the  Great  Civil  War,  I.-IV. ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  001-620  ; 
Green,  Short  History,  ch.  viii.  §§7,  8,  —  History  of  the  English 
People,  bk.  vii.  chs.  ix.  x.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England, 
001-620  ;  Brewer,  StndenVs  Hume,  ch.  xxii. ;  Lingard,  History  of 
England,  VI.  chs.  vii.-ix. ;  Cordery  and  Phillpotts,  King  and  Com- 
monwealth, chs.  vi.-xi. ;  Bayne,  Chief  Actors  of  the  Puritan  Bevo- 
lution, chs.  ix.  x. ;  Macaulay,  History  of  England,  ch.  i.,  —  Essays 
(•'Milton");  Morris,  Montrose;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xxxvi. 
xxxvii.  ;  Edwards,  Wales,  ch.  xxiii.  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland, 
III.  104-226  ;  Brown,  History  of  Scotland,  II.  326-346  ;  Taswell- 
Langmead,  Constitutional  History,  504-507  ;  Traill,  Socihl  Eng- 
land, ch.  xiv.  203-239.  See  New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association,  Syllabus,  253-254. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  207-216  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  no.  73 ;  Kendall,  Source-Book,  nos. 
79-83  ;  Gardiner,  Constitutional  Documents  of  the  Puritan  Bevolu- 
tion, pt.  iii..;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History,  nos. 
cvii.  cviii. ;  Henderson,  Side  Lights,  85-89  ;  Carlyle,  CromwelVs 
Letters  and  Speeches,  pts.  ii.  iii.  ;  Lord  Holies,  3Iemoirs  (1642- 
1648) ;  Boyle,  Characters  and  Episodes  of  the  Great  Bebellion  ; 
Clarendon,  History  of  the  Bebellion,  bks.  vi.-xvi. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  317- 
335  ;  Charles,  The  Draytons  and  the  Davenants  ;  Church,  With  the 
King  at  Oxford  ;  Dumas,  Twenty  Years  After;  Lyall,  To  Bight  the 
Wrong,  —  In  Spite  of  All ;  Macaulay,  Songs  of  the  Civil  War ; 
Manning,  Maiden  and  Married  Life  of  Mary  Powell ;  Macdonald, 
St.  George  and  St.  Michael ;  Paterson,  CronmeWs  Own  ;  Quiller- 
Couch,  The  Splendid  Spur;  Scott,  The  Legend  of  Montrose. 


(  IIAI'TKU    XXIV. 
rUnMWKI.I.    AND     TIIK    (  i  ).\1.M(  ».\  WKAL  Til    (KU'J-KiOO) 

Till-:  hold  iiuMj  who  dared  to  put  the  king  to  death  and  to 
al)oli.sh  the  House  of  Lords    iuiinediately  encountered   grave 
dangers,    both    from    tlie    army    ami    from    tlie    king's   383  Resist- 
friends.      Independency   fostered    the    development    of     ancetothe 
groups  of  extremists,  —  Anabaptists,  "Fifth    Monarchy  (1649; 

Men''  (followers  of  '"King  Jesus"),  and  "Levellers,'"  —  who 
were  determined  to  reconstruct  English  i)olitics  on  the  model 
of  the  ancient  Hebrew  state  described  in  the  Old  Testament, 
or  upon  tliat  of  some  ideal  state  foretold  in  the  visions  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets.  Certain  fanatics  early  started  a  mutiny  in 
tlie  army,  l)ut  were  promptly  checked  by  Cromwell. 

Parliament  had  neglected  Ireland  while  the  war  was  raging 
in  England,  and  it  was  now  found  that  the  royalists  were  wiq- 
ning  nearly  all  the  island  to  their  cause.     Thither  Crom-    384    Crom- 
well  hastened,  angrv  at   the   continuance   of   a   ustdcss   7®",  "^  ^'"®' 

land  'Aug  - 
struggle.     Drogheda,  refusing    to    surrender,   was    takm      Oct.,  1649; 

by  storm,  and  its  garrison  of  two  thousand  were  put  to  death. 
Cromwell  defended  his  severity  by  declaring,  "Truly,  I 
believe  this  bitterne.ss  will  save  much  effusion  of  blood";  but 
a  second  massacre  of  the  same  kind  took  place  at  Wexford 
before  the  royalists  of  Ireland  were  convinced  that  the  new 
government  was  too  strong  to  be  resisted.  Even  then,  the 
Irish  proved  slow  of  subjugation,  and  imt  until  \Cu72,  wiicn 
three  out  of  four  of  their  jjrovinces  had  l>een  contiscatt'il,  was 
r»'sistance  wholly  stamped  out  by  Cromwrll's  son-in-law, 
Irt'ton. 


Cam  iore  Pt. 


fenstown 

IRELAND 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


60  80 

Pale  I  I  Scottish  SettlementB 

Practical  ExtenBion  of  the  Pale    |  1  Eiceptional  Settlementa  c 
Ptantatione  under  Elizabeth 


uatire  basis 

1  I'lantatione  under  tuzaoetQ         f;:- 1  ,,^  ,y 

Plantationa  under  James  I,  P^    UnpIantedJ>i8trlct8  (1641) 

and  Charles  I. 


Longitude 


The  Cromwellian^Seftlemont  IncltudeaaH^the  island 
except  that  colored  the  darker  green 

1 ; 

West  8  from  Greenwich 

340 


CKOMWF.l.I,   AND    rilK    C<  )MM()NWF.AI.TH 


041 


In  these  eontiscateil  provinces,  Ireton  carried  out  tlje  so- 
callctl  Cromuellian  settlement  of  Ireland.  Much  of  the  land 
■was  given  to  the  veterans  of  tlie  war,  much  was  .iriven  to 
"inidertakers,"'  who  transported  colonists  thither  from  Eng- 
land and  Scotland.  Catholicism  was  sternly  suppressed,  and 
the  Irish  who  refused  to  give  np  their  religion  wpr<'  drivnn 
into  the  wilds  of  Connaught,  there  to  start  life  anew. 


EdIXBDROH   CaSTI.E.    KIloM    THK    Ul-PKK    LkVKL. 

After  the  execution  of  Charles  I.,  the  Scots  proclaimed  his 
eldest  son,  Prince  Charles,  king  of  Scotland,  but  he  was  not 
to  be  allowed  to  rule  until  he  should  take  the  Covenant    ^sb    Crom- 
and  swear  to  protect  the  I'resbyterian  religion.     In  June,  well  in 

1050,  Charles  landed  in  Scotland  and  signed  the  Cove-     ,juiy  Dec  , 
nant,  much  to  the  disturbance  of  the  English  Parliament.  1650> 

Fairfax  declared  that  Scotland  had  a  rigiit  to  choose  its  own 
king,  but  Cromwell  urged  that  England  mn.st  ilefend  herself 
from  so  dangerous  a  neighbor.  Thinking  action  l>etter  than 
argument,  he  hurried  into  Scotland  and  reached  Edinburgh  on 
.Tuly  28.     The  city  was  too  strong  to  be  taken  by  assault,  and 


342 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


the  English  army,  being  so  short  of  supplies  as  to  be  in  almost 
a  starving  condition,  had  to  retire  southward  a  month  later. 
It  reached  Dunbar  only  to  find  its  retreat  into  England  barred 
by  Scottish  forces,  but  Cromwell  took  advantage  of  a  tactical 
error  of  the  Scottish  commanders,  and  by  a  spirited  charge 
destroyed  the  entire  Scottish  army  (September  3,  1650).  He 
was  then  free  to  renew  the  attack  on  Edinburgh,  which  was 
captured  in  December;  but  Charles  was  nevertheless  crowned 
at  Scone,  January  1,  1(351. 

During  the  following  summer  Prince  Charles  invaded  Eng- 
land by  the  route  west  of  the  Pennine  Chain.     He  hoped  to 
386.  Over-     rally  to  his  support  the  royalists  of  the  western  counties, 
throw  of        Q^^^^  perhaps  produce  a  rising  in  his  favor  in  Northum- 
Charles  berland  and  York  which  should  hold  Cromwell  in  check 

(Sept.,  1651)  -vviiiie  \iQ  gained  possession  of  London.  Cromwell  hurried 
southward,  intercepted  Charles's  army  near  Worcester,  and 
totally  defeated  it  (September  3,  1651),  just  one  year  after  the 

battle  of  Dunbar.  Charles 
fled  in  the  disguise  of  a 
servant  to  Bristol  and 
thence  to  Brighton,  where 
he  obtained  passage  to 
France.  At  one  time  he 
escaped  capture  only  by 
hiding  in  an  oak  tree, 
and  oak  branches  became 
thereafter  symbols  of  loy- 
alty to  the  Stuarts.  Scotland  was  soon  reduced  to  submis- 
sion by  General  Monk. 

During  these  military  operations,  the  executive  authority  in 
387  First  England  was  vested  in  a  Council  of  State,  composed  of 
govern-  forty-one  leading  officers  of  the  army  and  other  officials. 

the  Com-        The  legislature  consisted  simply  of  about  fifty  members 
monwealth    ^f  ^\-^q  Rump  Parliament.     Their  problem  Avas  to  carry 


Loyalist  Medal  of  Kiol,  showixg  the 
Royal  Oak. 

'  God  did  presarve  C[arolaiu]  R[egem] 
from  Woster." 


CKOMWKI.L    AND   TIIK    COMMON WKAl.TIl  343 

on  a  government  based  on-  usuipatiou,  and  supported  hy  an 
army  of  enthusiasts  and  fanatics  ;  a  government  tlneateui-d  l)y 
foes  at  home  and  abroad,  and  accepted  witli  rebu-laiicc  by  a 
large  majority  of  rlie  nat  ion.  The  royalists  published  the  Eikon 
Batiilike,  a  book  pretending  to  be  the  late  king's  description 
of  his  sufferings  during  liis  imprisonment;  and  foreign  writers 
like  Salmasius  of  Leyden  bitterly  denounced  the  English  for 
murdering  their  king.  Parliament  employed  the  learned  and 
high-minded  John  Milton  to  compose  suitable  replies  to  these 
works;  and  this  led  to  his  employment  as  foreign  secretary 
through  the  whole  of  this  period.  Had  there  been  many  of 
his  stamp  among  the  Puritans,  England  would  have  been 
spared  a  tyranny ;  but  the  members  of  the  Rump  were  deter- 
mined to  keep  absolute  control  in  their  own  hands,  and  unfor- 
tunately these  hands  proved  to  be  neither  clean  nor  skillful. 

During  England's  long  period  of  civil  strife,  the  Dutch,  now 
free  from  Spain,  were  absorbing  the  carrying  tiade  between 
foreign    countries   and   England.      In    10,")!    Parliament      388.  War 

enacted  a  navigation  act  designed  to  restrict  this  trade         „  ,!"'j 
-  "  Holland 

to  English  vessels,  and  this  led  to  a  long  and  fiercely  (1652-I654i 
fought  naval  war  l)etween  England  and  Holland.  Cromwell 
appealed  to  Engli.sh  pride  by  reviving  the  old  English  claim 
to  supremacy  in  the  narrow  seas;  but  Holland  refused  to 
salute  her  rival's  flag.  During  1G52  and  1C53  the  English 
under  Blake  and  Monk  won  five  notable  victories,  and  the 
Dutch  under  Van  Tromp  and  De  lluyter  won  but  one.  The 
Dutch  therefore  negotiated  for  peace  in  April,  H')~}i,  and 
accepted  Ixith  the  navigation  act  and  the  claim  of  supremacy 
in  the  Channel.  To  meet  the  large  expenses  of  the  war,  Par- 
liament confi.scated  the  estates  of  all  royalists  within  the 
kingdom;  but  the  rich  royalists  bribed  the  officials  and  kept 
their  lands,  while  those  less  well-to-do  lost  all  their  property. 
Disgu.stod  with  the  lack  of  honor  in  the  Hump  Parliament, 
Cromwell   and  a  few  other   ])atriot3  started  a  movement   to 


344 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


secure  a  really  representative  Parliament.     To  forestall  their 

action,  the  members  of  the  Rump  hastily  framed  a  bill  for 

389.  Expul-  the  election  of  a  new  Parliament  in  which  they  should 

sion  of  the       ^^  j^^^^^  seats.    April  20,  IGo.S,  as  this  measure  was  about 

Rump  '-  ' 

(1653)  to  be  put  to  vote,  Cromwell  arose  in  the  Commons  and 

charged  the  members  with  injustice  and  selfishness;  when  the 


Oliver  Cromwell. 
From  a  contemporary  allegorical  engraving  by  "William  Faithorne. 

speech  was  interrupted  he  cried  out,  "  Come,  come,  we  have 
had  enough  of-  this.  I  will  put  an  end  to  this.  It  is  not  fit 
you  should  sit  here  any  longer."  At  his  signal  a  body  of  sol- 
diers cleared  the  house,  while  Cromwell  took  possession  of 
*'that  bauble"  the  speaker's  mace,  and  locked  the  doors  of 


cu«».m\vi:ll  and  tiik  chmmonwhai/iii  345 

the  house.  Tluis  the  last  representative  of  tlie  old  constitu- 
tional authority  was  swept  away ;  for  a  second  time,  the  army 
had  overawed  the  legislature. 

Cromwell  and  the  council  of  officers  now  created  a  so-called 
Parliament  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  members,  nominated  on 
the   ground   of  their   high   moral   character    and    their     390.  Fail- 
enthusiasm  for  Puritan  principles.     This   bodv  was   to      ureofthe 

•  .     Common- 

serve  as  a  legislature  until  the  nation  was  in  a  fit  temper  wealth 

of  mind  to  elect  a  more  satisfactory  Parliament!  The  mem- 
bers, who  had  little  knowledge  of  affairs  or  practical  political 
skill,  were  largely  under  the  influence  of  a  religious  enthusiast 
named  l*raise-God  Barebone,  whence  the  assembly  received 
the  name  of  Barebone's  Parliament.  Under  the  leadership  of 
this  fanatic,  the  new  legislators  set  out  to  reform  the  govern- 
ment b}-  abolishing  certain  departments  and  offices  in  which 
abuses  had  grown  up;  but  they  provided  no  other  means  of 
getting  the  work  done.  From  such  unpractical  zeal  the  wiser 
members  turned  for  relief  once  more  to  Cromwell's  sane  and 
sol)er  common  sense.  So  in  December,  1053,  they  met  early 
one  morning  and  voted  to  resign  the  powers  of  Parliament 
into  the  hands  of  Cromwell. 

It   was   now  determined  to  cast  aside  old   traditions   and 
create  a  new,  written  constitution,  adapted  to  present  condi- 
tions.    The  officers  of  the  army  therefore  drew  up  an   392    Egtab- 
"  Instrument  of  Government,"'  by  which  England,  Scot-    lishmentof 
land,  and  Ireland  were  to  be  ruled  :is  one  nation.     Crom-  torate 

well  was-made  executive  head  of  the  state,  with  the  titk  '^®*^  ^653* 
of  "Lord  Protector  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,"  and 
was  given  a  Council  of  State  of  fifteen  meml)ers.  There  was 
to  be  a  Parliament  of  a  single  house,  consisting  of  five  hun- 
dred members  roughly  appf)rtioned  according  t<»  population, 
autl  limited  by  a  property  qualification.  This  Parliamrnt  was 
to  have  control  over  supplies,  taxation,  and  legislation  ;  but  a 
fixed  sum  was  appropriated  for  the  ordinary  expenses  of  the 


346  STUAKl'S   AND   TARLIAMENT 

govern uie lit,  so  that  Parliament  could  never  paralyze  the  gov- 
ernment by  withholding  supplies,  and  the  Protector  and  Council 
were  empowered  to  make  ordinances  which  were  to  be  valid 
until  Parliament  rejected  them.  This  was  among  the  tirst 
written  constitutions  of  modern  times. 

As  the  first  Parliament  under  the  Instrument  did  not  meet 
until  September,  1654,  Cromwell  enjoyed  absolute  power  as 
392  Fail-  I^ord  Protector  during  a  period  of  nine  months.  During 
ure  of  the  ^i^ig  period  he  brought  the  war  with  the  Dutch  to  an  end 
of  Govern-  npon  favorable  terms,  and  made  some  necessary  reforms ; 
^^^^  but  the  new  Parliament  proved  no  better  and  fared  no 

better  than  its  predecessors.  With  scrupulous  regard  for  "  the 
letter  of  the  law,"  it  raised  the  question  whether  the  Instru- 
ment of  Government  (the  document  to  which  it  owed  its  own 
existence)  was  legal ;  and  then,  with  amusing  lack  of  logic,  it 
proposed  to  enact  another  constitution  on  its  own  authority. 
At  the  earliest  moment  allowed  by  law,  this  Parliament,  too, 
was  dissolved  by  Cromwell,  in  January,  1655. 

While  the  Instrument  of  Government  was  thus  proving  a 
failure,  a  reaction   in  favor  of   a  monarchy  made  itself  felt 
throughout  the  country.    Alarmed  by  a  royalist  outbreak 
ernmentby    in  Salisbury  which  had  to  be  ^^ut  down  by  military  force, 
^ai^'^fAu^"     Cromwell  turned  to  the  army  as  the  one  means  of  gov- 
1655-Oct.,      eminent  which  he  could  both  trust  and   control.      He 
organized  the  state  on  a  military  basis,  and  divided  the 
entire  territory  into  ten  districts,  with  a  major  general  in  com- 
mand "of   each.      Since  royalist  conspiracies  had  led  to  this 
action,  the  major  generals  were  authorized  to  secure  funds  for 
the  support  of  their  governments  by  laying  a  tax  of  ten  per 
cent  upon  the  incomes  of  all  royalists.     In  districts  that  re- 
mained quiet  the  government  relaxed  its  strictness,  but  meetings 
for  political  and  religious  discussion  were  sternly  suppressed. 
Cromwell  was  far  in  advance  of  his  time  in  his  tolerant  atti^ 
tude  toward  divergent  religious  beliefs.     His  plan  was  "to  let 


CUnMWKLL   AM)    1111.   COMMON \Vi: A Ll'll  oiT 

all  this  nation  see  that  whatever  pretensions  to  relijjfion  wonhl 
continue  quiet,  peaceable,  tliev  should  enjoy  conscience  and 
liberty  to  themselves  ;  "  but  they  were  "  not  to  make  re-       ,,  „ 

li',Mon  a  pretense  for  arms  and  blood."     Even  the  Jews,  Spetch, 

wiio  had  been  excluded  from  England  since  1290,  were   *"*"/''-^".^«-5fi 
allowed  by  Cromwell  to  settle  in  London,  although  in  violation 
of  the  law. 

During  the  year  that  England  remained  under  military  con- 
trol, Cromwell  made  war  upon  Spain  to  assert  his  hostility  to 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  to  dispute  the  power  of  Sjiain    394.  Crom- 

in  America.      Admirals  Fenn  and  Venables  were   sent      ^®    ^  °^' 

eign  policy 

to  the  West  Indies,  where  they  captured  the  important  U655  1658) 
island  of  Januiica  (1655).  Admiral  Blake  was  sent  against 
the  pirates  from  Tunis  and  Algiers,  who  had  taken  advan- 
tage of  England's  troubles  to  raid  her  merchants'  fleets  in 
the  Mediterranean.  He  burned  the  pirate  fleet  at  Tunis,  and 
forced  the  dey  of  Algiers  to  make  terms  with  England.  Then, 
on  his  return  from  Algiers,  Blake  fell  in  with  the  Spanish 
trea.sure  fleet  from  America  (April,  1657),  and  cai)tured  vessels 
containing  .4:1,00(),0(»0  worth  of  silver. 

The  protector's  energetic  rule  raised  England  in  the  respect 
of  European  nations  to  a  pitch  which  she  had  never  reached 
since  the  age  of  Elizabeth.  Cromwell's  friendship  was  much 
desired  by  ^lazarin,  the  chief  minister  of  France,  and  as  the 
price  of  an  alliance  Cromwell  forced  France  to  .secure  tolera- 
tion for  the  persecuted  Vaudois  Protestants  in  the  .Mpino 
valleys.  France  an<l  England  then  attacked  Spain,  and  Dun- 
kirk was  con<piered  and  handed  over  to  England  (1(')5S). 

Meanwhile  Cromwell  had  once  more  tried  the  exi)eriment  of 

assembling  a  Farliament  (1656);  this  jnoved  more  rea.sonable 

than    the    ])revious   one,  and    the    military   organization      gg^    ^^.^^^ 

under  the  major  generals  was  discontinued.     Cromwell's        toward  a 

.  .     ,.-  monarchy 

enemies  were  making  frefjuent  attempts  against  his  lite, 

and  roused  the  fear  that,  should  In;  die,  England  would  1m*  a 


348  STUARTS   AND   PARLLS.MENT 

prey  to  anarchy.  In  1657  the  discovery  of  a  dangerous  plot 
against  Cromwell's  life  led  Parliament  to  present  to  him 
the  "Solemn  Petition  and  Advice"  regarding  reforms  which 
would  give  greater  stability  to  the  government.  It  was  pro- 
posed to  create  a  body  of  Lords  by  raising  Oliver's  chief  sup- 
porters to  the  peerage,  to  convert  the  Council  of  State  into  a 
kind  of  Privy  Council,  and  to  make  Cromwell  king,  with  the 
power  of  naming  his  successor.  Cromwell,  perceiving  clearly 
that  the  rank  and  file  of  the  army  were  unfavorable  to  a  mon- 
archy, refused  the  title  of  king ;  but  a  second  written  constitu- 
tion, otherwise  framed  in  general  accordance  with  the  Petition 
and  Advice,  went  into  operation  in  June,  1657. 

This  government  lasted  only  two  weeks  after  the  assembling 
of  the  new  Parliament  (January,  1658)  ;  for  w^hen  the  new 
House  of  Commons  had  spent  those  two  weeks  in  wrangling 
over  the  rights  of  the  new  House  of  Lords,  Cromwell  decided 
for  the  third  time  to  dissolve  Parliament,  and  to  rule  alone. 
This  he  did  with  great  reluctance,  dismissing  the  unprofitable 
legislators  with  the  words,  "The  Lord  judge  between  me  and 
you." 

The  last  hope  of   securing  a   constitutional   democracy   in 
England  was  clearly  at  an  end,  and  the  only  thing  that  upheld 
396.  Death    tlie  Puritan  state  was  the  firm  hand  of  Cromwell.     Un- 
%  ^^""^^^^^  fortunately  that  hand  was  already  fast  losing  its  power, 
1658)  exhausted  by  the  labors  of  the  previous  decade  and  by 

the  necessity  of  ruling  without  support  from  the  mass  of  the 
people.  Conspiracies  were  formed  to  kill  Cromwell,  to  restore 
the  king,  to  create  a  new  Commonwealth.  Cromwell's  health 
failed  rapidly,  and  the  death  of  his  daughter  in  August  weak- 
ened his  interest  in  the  affairs  of  this  world.  September  3, 
1658,  he  died.  A  prayer  which  he  was  overheard  to  frame  in 
the  last  week  of  his  illness  forms  the  best  testimony  to  the 
temper  and  the  motive  which  had  controlled  him  in  his  public 
life,  and  to  his  single-minded  devotion  to  the  welfare  of  the 


OR(>M\Vi:i,L    AM)     rilK    COMMONWKAL'III  840 

nation  whose  destiiiit's  lie  Icid  .sluiju'il.     ••  I  iii;iy,  I  will,  come 

to  Thee  for  thy  pet)|)le.       Thou  hast  uwule  me,  thoiii^h         Carhih, 

very   unworthy,  a  mean   iustruuit-nt    to   do   tlieiu    some      '"'"""'''    •* 

'  '  Let  tern  II  ml 

good,  and  Thee  seryiee.  .  .  .      Lmil,  however  Thou  dost      Speeches, 
dispose  of  me,  continue  and  go  ou  to  do  good  for  them.'' 

Cromwell's  AcTor.RArii. 

Portion  of  a  letter  written  Sept.  11,  1()4.S,  about  pay  for  troops  to  relieve  Hull, 
tlieii  besieged  by  Manchester. 

On   his  deathbed,   Cromwell  nominated  his  son  Richard  to 
be  Lord  Protector  of  England.     The  few  months  of  Richard's 
rule  were   marked  by   inefficiency  and  Aveakness  wliich      39-    ^^j 
made  him  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  schemers.     The  lapse  of  the 
army  became  restive  at  seeing  the  control  jtass  out  of  torate 

the  hands  of  a  great  soldier  into  those  of  a  weak  civilian,  (May,  1659) 
and  its  headers  demanded  that  the  appointment  of  army  otti- 
cers  shoidd  be  intrusted  to  the  army  itself.  When  Parliament 
rejected  tliis  proposal,  the  army  first  dissolved  Parliament, 
and  later  reas.sembled  the  Rump,  the  members  of  whicli  coidd, 
at  least,  be  trusted  not  to  question  their  own  authority  to  act 
for  the  nation.  Forty-two  of  these  were  then  in  London,  and 
under  tlie  protection  of  the  army  they  resumed  their  long- 
intcrrujded  sessions  (May  7,  KliiO),  with  their  original  speaker, 
Lenthall,  in  the  chair.  Two  weeks  later,  Richard  Cromwell 
abdicated,  and  the  Protectorate  came  to  an  end. 

Assuming  to  be,  since  the  death  of  the  king,  th»>  one  repre- 
sentative body  which  had  Ix'cn  elected  under  constitutional 
authority,  the   Kump  di-mauded   of  the  army   unquestioning 


350  Stuarts  and  parliament 

obedience  to  its  orders,  declared  all  ordinances  passed  since  its 

own  dissolution  to  have  been  illegal,  and  in  its  zeal  for  con- 

398.  Rule      stitutionality  actually  proceeded  to  collect  a  second  time, 

?.-r*  \      J     as  arrears  of  taxes,  all  sums  which  had  been  paid  to 
"Restored  '  '- 

Rump"  Cromwell's  government.     For  the  fifth  and  last  time  the 

disappointed  army  appealed  to  force  and  dispersed  Parliament 
(October  13) ;  but  the  army  had  no  longer  that  unity  which 
gives  strength.  A  royalist  insurrection  was  crushed  only  with 
some  difficulty ;  mutinies  broke  out  at  Portsmouth ;  the  army 
leaders  were  jealous  and  scheming  for  selfish  ends ;  and  in 
December,  1659,  the  Rump  was  again  restored  to  power. 

The  time  was  now  ripe  for  some  strong,  far-sighted  leader 
to  assume  the  direction  of  affairs,  and  this  leader  appeared  in 

399   End  of  ^^^®  person  of  General  Monk,  commander  in  chief  of  the 

the  Long        forces    in   Scotland.      Monk  first  summoned  a  Scottish 
Parliament  i  i  •   i 

(Mar.  16,        assembly  and   procured  a  grant  of   money  by  which  to 

1660)  insure  the  obedience  of  his  soldiers.     He  then  advanced 

into  England,  was  joined  by  Fairfax,  the  representative  of  the 
party  of  order  in  England,  and  on  February  3  entered  London, 
where  the  citizens  were  clamoring  for  a  "free  Parlia^ment." 
When  Monk  decided  to  take  up  their  cause,  their  joy  was 

Diary  of        unbounded.     -'In  Cheapside  there  was  a  great  many  bon- 

S((miiel  fires,  and  all  the  bells  in  all  the  churches  as  we  went 

Pepys,  ' 

1059-1660  home  were  a-ringing  .  .  .  and  all  along  burning,  and 
roasting,  and  drinking  for  rumps;  there  being  rumps  tied 
upon  sticks  and  carried  up  and  down." 

On  February  26,  1660,  those  Presbyterians  who  had  been  ex- 
cluded by  Pride's  Purge  claimed  their  seats  in  Parliament,  and 
as  they  outnumbered  the  forty-two  members  of  the  Rump  now 
remaining,  they  were  able  to  carry  a  vote  to  dissolve  the  exist- 
ing Parliament  and  elect  a  new  "Convention  Parliament"  im- 
mediately. Thus  the  Long  Parliament,  assembled  by  Charles 
I.  (November  3,  1640),  came  to  an  end  by  its  own  act  (March 
16,  1660). 


CUO.MWKLL    AND   TIIK   C<  >.MM<)N  WKALIII  351 

While  the  outcome  of  these  events  was  still  doubtful,  the 

exiled   Charles   Stuart    issued   a   conciliatory    Declaration   of 

Breda  (^April  14,  IGOO),  in  which,  on  condition  that  he  400.  Resto- 

should  be  restored  to  the  throne  of  his  father,  he  offered        ration  of 

11  1  111  ^c  Stuart 

to  grant  a  general  pardon  to  those  engageil  in  the  late      line  May, 

rebellion,   except   such   as   Parliament   should    by  vote  1660) 

exempt  from  pardon;  he  pledged  that  all  property  confiscated 
during  the  recent  troubles  should  be  secured   to   its   present 
holders;  and  he  guaranteed  religious  toleration  to  all  persons 
who  would  refrain  from  disturbing  the  public  peace.     On  the 
day  that  this  declaration  was  received  (>[ay  8)  the  Convention 
Parliament  voted  the  restoration  of  government  by  king,  Lords, 
and  Commons,  with  Charles  Stuart  as  sovereign.     On  May  'Jo, 
16G0,  Charles  II.  landed  at  Dover  amid  the  greatest  enthusiasm. 
"The  shouting  and  joy  expressed  by  all  is  past  imagin- 
ing," says  one  of  those  active  in  the  Restoration.     On  the  Diary, 
29th  the  army  which  had  ruled  England  for  a  decade  was   -»'"y '^.ieeo 
reviewed  and  disbanded,  and  the  Parliaments  of  England  and 
Scotland  set  about  readjusting  the  affairs  of  the  two  kingdoms. 
The  period   from^  1G03  to  IGGO,  with  its   intense   factional 
strife,  was  unfavorable  to  the  production  of  a  noble  literature 
or  a  refined  art.     For  a  time,  only  the  pettier  passions 
found  expression.     The  romantic  impulse  of   the  Eliza-  ature 
bethan  Age  was  not  quite  dead ;  but  it  found  expression  '  ' 
only  in  affected    sentiment  such  as  the    gory  and   hysterical 
tragedies  of  Webster,  Massinger,  and  Ford ;  or  in  light  and 
unsubstantial  flights  of  fancy  in  the  gay  and  spirited  lyrics  of 
the  Cavalier  iKjets.     Their  leading  note  is  that  of  Lovelace's 
plea  on  deserting  Lucasta  to  go  and  fight  for  the  king:  — 

"  I  could  not  love  thee,  dear,  so  mucli  Lovrlnce, 

Loved  I  not  lionor  more."  To  Lucasta 

This  romantic  spirit  is  seen  also  in  the  lyrics  of  Robert 
Herrick  (1."»«>1-1(»74),  who. devoted  his  talents  partly  to  sing- 
ing the  romance  of  rural  life  in  his  Jlesjyeride.t,  and  partly  to 


352 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


expressing  one  phase  of  the  contemporary  religious  ferment  in 
his  Noble  Xumbers. 

The  religious  exaltation  found  its  most  vivid  expression  in 
the  works  of  the  master  poet  John  Milton  (1608-1674),  who 

-«^    ,  ,        ioined  with  it  a  new  classical  impulse.     For  thirty  years 

402.  John      •"  f  J  J 

Milton  of  his  life  Milton  tried  his  "  prentice  hand  "  on  lyrics  — 

(1608-167  )   xj>^[ii^fji-Q^    L>/ridas,   etc.  —  which    were  Greek    in  spirit 

and  in  dress.     During  the  eleven  years  of  the  Commonwealth, 

as  foreign  secretary  of   the  government,  he   devoted   all   his 

powers  to  his  Latin   prose 
Defences  of  the  English  Peo- 
jyle  for  their  treatment  of 
Charles  I.    Aged  and  made 
blind   by    these   labors,   he 
used  the  leisure  of  the  Res- 
toration period  in  compos- 
ing the  great  English  epic, 
Paradise  Lost.     This  poem, 
dealing   with    the   creation 
and  the  fall  of  man,  is  one 
expression  of  the  militant 
Christianity    of    the    Puri- 
tans ;  and  at  the  same  time 
its  epic  form,  its  chaste  and 
noble  diction,  and  its  Avealth  of  mythological  and  historical 
ornament  express  the  newer  classical  tendency  of  the  century. 
In  painting,  the  period  is  notable  for  the  excellent  work  in 
portraiture  done  by  Anthony  Van  Dyck  (1599-1641),  a  Flemish 

403.  Paint-  painter  who  was  induced  by  the  Earl  of  Arundel  to  take 
Van  Dyck  ^^P  ^'^^  residence  in  England.  He  was  knighted  by  the 
(1599-1641)   king  and  was  given  a  country  residence  and  a  pension; 

in  return  for  which  he  painted  the  portraits  of  all  the  Stuarts, 
and  of  the  most  notable  members  of  the  court  circle. 


John  Miltox. 
From  the  paiiitiiia;  by  P.  Kramer. 


CKO.MWKl.I-    AM)    rilK   C(  ).MM<  "N  WK  ALTII  353 

For  eli'vi'u  ytvirs  after  the  cxeiMition  of  <'harles  I.,  England 
-iifferi'tl  from  a  never  changing  tyranny,  in  which  C'roniwi'll's 
integrity  and  ability  were  pitted  against  the  ignorance,     ^q^    g^^^ 
greed  of  power,  and  ambition  of  lesser  men.    After  Croni-  mary 

well  had  stamped  out  the  embers  of  the  civil  conflagration  in 
the  three  kingdoms,  there  followed  an  experiment  in  govern- 
ment by  oligarchies  (^official,  religious,  or  military),  which  proved 
more  tyramucal  than  the  Stuarts  themselves;  the  Rump  I'ar- 
liament  was  self-seeking,  the  liarebone's  Parliament  ignorant, 
the  later  Parliaments  quarrelsome  and  unpractical.  The  sham 
democracy  of  the  Commonwealth,  therefore,  had  to  give  way 
to  the  disguised  tyranny  of  the  Protectorate.  Since  this  rested 
upon  the  will  of  a  single  extraordinarily  able  statesman,  unity 
of  j)olicy  and  directness  of  action  were  possible;  and  the  vic- 
tories over  Spain  and  the  ^fediterranean  pirates  made  England 
once  more  respected  abroad.  This  government,  however,  col- 
lajised  with  the  death  of  its  creator;  and  amid  the  dissensions 
of  the  democratic  leaders,  the  monarchical  sentiment  of  the 
nation  again  asserted  itself. 

TOPICS 

(1)  Di.scuss  Cromwell's  action  at  Drogheda  and  Wexford,  trying   Suggestive 
to  make   clear  how  such  a  man    could    sanction    such   an   act.       ^  ^^ 

(2)  Show  tlie  necessity  of  Parliament's  interference  in  Scotland. 

(3)  What  in  the  organization  of  the  Highlanders  made  them 
ciiampion  the  king's  cause?  (4)  What  would  be  tiie  merits  and 
tiie  defects  of  an  army  of  Highlanders?  (5)  How  did  the  rivalry 
nf  the  Dutch  and  the  English  in  America  .show  it.self  during  this 
[xTiod  ?  (»!)  Wliat  written  constitutions  were  drawn  up  in  .Vnierica 
earlier  than  the  Instniincnt  of  Government  ?  (7)  Review  tlie  his- 
tory of  the  Long  Tarliament.  (8)  Was  Monk's  action  patriotic  ? 
(9)  Discuss  the  Declaration  of  Breda.  (10)  Compare  the  rule  of 
Cromwell  with  that  of  Charles  I.  (11)  Show  why  the  rea-ssembled 
Hump  was  the  only  legal  I'arliament  of  the  period. 

(12)  The  aspirations  of  the  Fifth  Monarchy  Men.     (I."])  The  story    Search 
of  Prince  Charles's  escape  after  the  battle  of  Worcester.    (14)  Mil-       ^ 
tim's  jmblic  .services  during  the  Puritan  rf-ijimp.     (!•'))   Macaulay's 
discussion  of  the  character  of  the  Puritans.     (16)  The  effect  of  the 


354 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


navigation  act  of  1651  on  the  American  colonies.  (17)  Tlie  career 
and  fate  of  tlie  Earl  of  Montrose.  (18)  Tlie  great  sea  tights  during 
the  Dutch  wars  of  the  Commonwealth.  (10)  Cromwell's  family 
life.     (20)  Charles  II.  in  exile. 


Geography 


Secondary- 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  280,  326,  340,  544,  545 ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas, 
maps  27,  33 ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  map  xxxi.  ;  Reich,  Xew 
Students^  Atlas,  map  27. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  II.  688-721  ;  Gardiner,  Studenfs 
History,  ch.  xxxvi.  519-520,  546,  —  The  Puritan  Bevolution, 
chs.  viii.-x.  §  2, —  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate,  I.  II., — 
CromicelVs  Place  in  History ;  Green,  Short  History,  464-467, 
572-604,  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  vii.  chs.  xi.  xii.  ; 
Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional-  History,  131-134;  Powell 
and  Tout,  History  of  En yl and,  bk.  vii.  chs.  iv.  viii.  ;  Bayne,  Chief 
Actors  in  the  Puritan  Pevohition,  chs.  viii.  x.  ;  Cordery  and  Phill- 
potts,  King  and  Commonioealth,  chs.  xii.-xvi.  ;  Harrison,  Oliver 
Cronnoell;  Firth,  Oliver  Cromwell;  Mozley,  Essays  ("Crom- 
well"); Inderwick,  Hie  Interregnum;  Masson,  Life  of  Milton, 
V.  bk.  iii.  ;  Pattison.  Life  of  Milton  ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume, 
ch.  xxiii. ;  Lingard,  History  of  England,  VII.  chs.  i.-v.  ;  Macaulay, 
History  of  England,  ch.  i.  ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional 
History,  507-510  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  III.  chs.  viii.  ix.  ; 
Brown,  History  of  Scotland,  II.  34U-378  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs. 
xxxix.  xl. ;  Morris,  History  of  Ireland,  137-162  ;  McCarthy,  Out- 
lines of  Irish  History,  ch.  v. ;  Lyall,  Bise  of  British  Dominion  in 
India,  13-20  ;  Rawson,  Twenty  Famous  Navcd  Battles,  ch.  vi.  ; 
Traill,  Social  England,  ch.  xiv.  239-334.  See  New  England  His- 
tory Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  254-255. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  217-221  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sojirces,  nos.  74-76  ;  Kendall,  Source-Bool', 
ch.  xiii.  ;  Hill,  Liberty  Documents,  ch.  vii.  ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Ducu- 
ments  of  Church  History,  nos.  110-113;  Gardiner,  Documents  of 
the  Puritan  Bevolution,  pt.  iv.  ;  Henderson,  Side  Lights,  02-124  ; 
Carlyle,  CromweWs  Letters  and  Speeches,  pts.  v.-x. ;  Butler,  Hu- 
dihras. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  336- 
340;  Charles,  On  Both  Sides  of  the  Sea  ;  Landor,  Imaginary  Con- 
versations (Cromwell,  Milton,  and  others) ;  Ring,  John  Milton 
and  His  Times  ;  Scott,  Woodstock. 


rilArTKK    XX\'. 


THE    IMCSTOKKI)   SITAHT   MOXAKCIIV    (1000-1*573) 

Thk  Convention  I'rtiliainent  entered  upon  its  task  of  recon- 
struction witli   an   excess   of   loyal    ardor.     It  condemned  to 

^      death  twenty  mem-       405    The 

hers     of     the     Higli     Convention 

Parliament 

V  ourt  Ot  Justice,  al-    (April  Dec  . 

though   Charles  de-  l^^^' 

manded  the  lives  of  only 

seven  ;  and  it  went  beyond 

his  wishes  in  ordering  that 

the   king  and  the  church 

should    receive    back    all 

their    lands    which    had 

been  confiscated  and  sold 

during  the  period  t»f  the 

<'nMinion  wealth. 

Feudalism      had      long 

since    been    outgrown    as 

a  system  of  government, 

and  many  of  its  practices 

had    been    abolished  ;    the 

Restoration  was  therefore 

deemed    a    favorable    op- 

porttinity  to  legalize  the 

change.     All  lanil  tenures  excepting  freehold  and    copyhold 

were   .ibolished,  so  that  landowners    generally  were   relieved 

of  various  burdensome  requirements  in  the  form  of  payments 

WAi.KKkN   km;,    hist.  —  22         .%.j 


GKR.\T    H.Vl.t,    (Now    I.IBK.\I{V)    OF   L.VM- 
HKTH    I'AI.ACK. 

Destroyed  !>>•  a  reiiiciilf  ueiHTal,  H(4S;  re- 
huilt  on  original  iikhIcI,  1('i<K>-16ti:{. 


356  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

and  services  to  the  crown.  Parliament  likewise  abolished  the 
crown  rights  over  wardship,  marriage,  and  purveyance  (the 
right  to  seize  provisions  for  royal  use  at  nominal  prices),  by 
means  of  which,  respectively,  monarchs  had  been  able  (1)  to 
educate  the  orphan  children  of  Catholic  parents  in  the  tenets 
of  the  state  church,  (2)  to  extort  money  from  heiresses  by 
threatening  to  compel  their  marriage  with  the  king's  favorites, 
and  (3)  to  put  political  pressure  on  the  country  gentry. 

To  make  good  the  revenues  thus  destroyed,  Parliament  voted 
to  continue  an  excise  tax  which  had  been  levied  by  the  Long 
Parliament  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  Civil  War ;  and  from 
the  sum  thus  raised,  together  with  the  tonnage  and  poundage 
duties,  the  king  was  to  receive  £1,200,000  a  year  for  life. 
As  this  sum  was  plainly  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  king 
and  the  expenses  of  the  government,  Parliament  could  still  put 
pressure  on  the  king  by  refusing  to  make  additional  grants  of 
money  whenever  the  king  should  oppose  its  will. 

In  December,  1660,  the  Convention  Parliament  was  dis- 
solved, and   in  May,  1661,  the  first    Restoration   Parliament 

Ar^f.    mT.         was  summoned.     With  the  exception  of  about  fifty  Pres- 

406.  The  ^  -^ 

loyalist  byterians,  this  Parliament  reflected  only  the  Cavalier 
reac  ion  element  in  the  nation,  including  many  young  men  to 
whom  the  evils  of  the  early  Stuart  period  were  apparently 
unknown.  This  Parliament  gave  Charles  control  over  the 
army  and  navy,  declared  it  illegal  to  make  war  upon  the 
king  under  any  circumstances,  and  restricted  the  right  to 
petition  the  monarch ;  it  repudiated  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  restored  the  bishops  to  their  seats  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  required  all  members  of  Parliament  to  receive 
the  communion  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Anglican  Church. 
Had  Charles  been  strong  and  able  as  well  as  unscrupulous, 

407.  Char-    these  measures  would  have  been  fatal  to  English  liberty. 

acter  of         Fortunately  for  the  nation,  he  was  indolent  and  pleasure- 
Charles  II 

loving    rather    than    ambitious,   and   desired   above   all 


THK    KESTOKEl)   8TUA1M'    .MoNAUfllV 


357 


things  else  to  make  liis  new  ])usitioii  sure.  He  confirmed 
both  Mai,Mi;i  Cliartu  and  the  I'etitiou  of  Kight,  and  was  content 
to  leave  tlie  direction  of  affairs  to  advisers  who  in  general 
stood  for  the  wislies  of  the  nation.  Monk,  who  had  placed 
him  on  the  throne,  was  made  Duke  of  Albemarle ;  and  Edward 
Hyde,  his  most  stanch  adherent  since  the  death  of  his  father, 
was  made  Earl  of  Clarendon  and  Lord  Chancellor.  The  mar- 
riage of  Clarendon's  daughter  Anne  to  Charles's  brother,  the 
Duke  of  York,  gave  Clarendon  additional  importance  at  court. 

On  the  Continent  Charles  had  seen  absolute  monarchs  gov- 
erning through  a  prime  minister;  and  although  this  term  was 
not  yet  in  use.  Clarendon  exercised  many  of  the  functions   408    Minis- 
of  such  an  othcer.     He  and  a  few  other  councilors  who      ^^°end^n 
alone  were  consulted  on  all  matters  requiring  secrecy    (1660-1667) 
and  dispatch,  were  known  as  the  "  Cabinet  Council "  (a  term 
iirst  applied  to  the  advisers  of  Charles  1.),  whence  the  modern 
term  *•  Cabinet ''  (§  635). 

Clarendon  was  a  profound  lawyer,  who  carried  his  legal 
training  and  his  legal  habits  of  mind  into  the  work  of  the 
chancellorship.  He  was 
naturally  a  stickler  for  the 
technical  rights  of  the  king 
and  a  chamjiion  of  the 
royal  i)rerogative ;  l)ut  he 
opjKJsed  all  attempts  of 
the  king  to  dispense  with 
the  .statutes  in  religious 
matters,  and  was  deter- 
mined tliat  public  business 
>hould  l)e  kept  entirely  in 

the  hands  of  memWrs  of  tlie  .\nglican  Church.  At  his  insti- 
gation Parliament  i)assed  three  important  acts,  aiming  to 
break  up  the  iiiHuence  of  Presbyterians  in  political  lif«',  and 
to  destroy  their  influence  in  the  church. 


■  -     -■     '   i^ 
West  Front  of  St.  P.\rL'8 

C.\THKI)K\I,.    l(i«il>. 


358  STUARTS   AND   PAKLIAMENT 

(1)  The  Corporation  Act  (December,  1661)  required  mem- 
bers of  municipal  corporations  to  renounce  the  Solemn  League 

409.  The       and  Covenant,  to  take  the  sacrament  in  accordance  with 

Anglican        ^j^^  ^.j^^^g  q£  ^j^g  Anglican  Church,  and  to  declare  on  oath 

tyranny 

(1661-1665)  that   they  believed  it   illegal  to  take  up  arms  against 

the  king. 

(2)  The  Act  of  Uniformity  (May,  1662)  required  all  clergy- 
men to  make  use  of  the  prayer  book  (now  newly  revised  by 
Convocation  so  as  to  exclude  from  it  all  Presbyterian  forms), 
and  also  to  accept  on  oath  all  the  doctrines  contained  therein. 
It  required,  furthermore,  that  all  officers  in  the  universities, 
and  all  schoolmasters  and  tutors,  should  be  tested  by  an  oath 
similar  to  that  contained  in  the  Corporation  Act.  Two  thou- 
sand ministers,  constituting  one  fifth  of  the  entire  English 
clerg}^,  voluntarily  left  their  livings  rather  than  violate  their  con- 
sciences by  accepting  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity. 

(3)  In  1664  Parliament  added  the  Conventicle  Act,  which 
prohibited  the  assembling  for  independent  religious  service  of 
more  than  four  persons  besides  the  family  in  whose  home  the 
services  were  held.  , 

(4)  The  next  year  it  passed  the  Five-mile  Act,  which  forbade 
any  minister  to  go  within  five  miles  of  any  city,  corporate 
town,  or  parliamentary  borough,  or  even  within  five  miles  of 
any  parish  in  which  he  had  preached  since  1660,  unless  he  had 
previously  taken  an  oath  declaring  it  illegal  to  take  up  arms 
against  the  king  and  pledging  himself  not  to  try  to  alter  the 
government  in  church  or  state. 

These  acts  marked  the  high  tide  of  Anglican  tyranny  in 
England,  a  tide  which  would  soon  have  ebbed,  had  not  the 
behavior  of  Charles  II.  and  his  successor  kept  alive  the  spirit 
of  religious  bigotry.  As  it  was,  they  tended  to  create  a  strong 
body  of  Nonconformists,  or  persons  who  refused  to  conform  to 
laws  about  religion,  and  thus  seriously  affected  the  influence 
of  the  established  church. 


Tin:  itKSToHK.n  sriAirr  monaijciiv  3r)9 

Meanwhile   the  eontest   for  n;ival   siipreinaey   between   the 

I)iiteh  and  the  English  was  icsunu'il.     llollaiul  was  held  to  1m^ 

'' KnLrland's  eternal  enemy,  both  byintentand  inclination, "         ,,„    _. 
J }  J  '  410.  Bl- 

and Kni,'lish  statesmen  parodied  C'ato's  cry  against  ("ar-     v airy  with 

thage;  —  "Holland  mnst  be  destroyed."  IJesides  Eng- 
land's long-standing  claim  that  "the  narrow  seas"  were  inland 
waters  under  her  own  jurisdiction,  commercial  rivalry  was  the 
chief  cause  of  enmity.  Both  powers  were  trying  to  monopolize 
the  commerce  in  the  far  East,  by  forming  treaties  with  native 
chiefs,  and  by  planting  tradiiig  stations ;  and  quarrels  which 
took  place  in  those  far-away  regions  often  led  to  actual  war- 
fare, since  each  nation  felt  bound  to  protect  its  own  citizens. 
The  most  immediate  causes  of  the  war  of  166.5  were  the  Dutch 
dislike  of  England's  navigation  acts,  and  disputes  regarding 
territories  in  Africa  and  America.  England  claimed  the  en- 
tire territory  from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Florida,  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  had  maintained 
a  settlement  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  for  forty  years. 
In  1604  Charles  granted  the  territory  held  by  the  Dutch  to 
his  brother  .Tanu's,  Duke  of  York ;  and  James,  as  Lord  High 
Admiral,  ])romptly  dispatched  a  fleet  to  seize  the  Dutch  settle- 
ment at  New  Amsterdam.  Another  fleet  seized  all  Dutch  ves- 
sels on  the  African  coast,  and  the  Dutch  responded  by  seizing 
all  the  English  forts  on  the  coast  of  Guinea. 

the  next  year  (166'))  war  was  formally  declared  by  I"'ng]anil. 
Parliament,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  jjrovided  £*2,ijOO,0(K)  foi-  tin- 
war,  and  Charles's  brother  James,  Duke  of  York  and  Lord       411    The 
High  Admiral,  sailed  with  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine      0^^^^°°^ 
vessels  to  engage  a  Dutch  fleet  of  about  equal  size.     The    (1665  1667i 
battle  off  Lowt'stoft  was  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  English.     In 
perfect  line,  like  a  body  of  well  dif^^iplined  cavalry,  they  swei)t 
down  upon  the  Dutch,  who  retreated  with  the  loss  of  an  admiral, 
nineteen  shi|»s.  and  seven  thou.sand  nuMi,  while  the  English  loss 
was  hardlv  one  titth  as  great. 


360  STUARTS   AND   PAllLIAMENT 

Naval  fortune  proved  fickle.  A  terrible  plague  which 
swept  over  England  during  1065-166(5  decimated  the  crews  of 
the  English  vessels ;  a  Dutch  fleet  attacked  the  English  vessels 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  while  they  were  unprepared  for 
action;  Denmark  and  the  two  German  states  of  Brandenburg 
and  Brunswick  allied  themselves  with  the  Dutch;  and  France, 
though  friendly  to  England,  threatened  to  do  the  same.  In 
these  straits  England  fought  desperately.  In  a  four  days' 
naval  battle  off  the  Downs  (June,  1666),  De  Ruyter  and  Van 
Tromp,  with  one  hundred  vessels,  crippled,  but  failed  to  de- 
stroy, a  much  smaller  English  fleet  under  Monk  and  Eupert. 
Two  months  later  Monk  defeated  De  Ruyter  off  the  coast  of 
Norfolk,  and  followed  up  this  victory  by  the  destruction  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty-one  merchant  vessels  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Zuyder  Zee,  the  very  threshold  of  Holland. 

Both  parties  to  the  struggle  were  now  practically  exhausted, 

and  the  distress  of  England  was  increased  by  the  terrible  fire 

412.  End       of  London   (1666),  which    destroyed    thirteen  thousand 

of  the  Dutch  j^Q^^ggg  within  the  city  walls,  and  for  the  time  being 
war  (July,  •'  '  ^ 

1667)  paralyzed  the  efficiency  of  the  government.      The  Dutch 

seized  the  opportunity  to   avenge  the  shame  of  the  Zuyder 
V  Zee.     A  fleet   of   sixty-one 

vessels  under  De  Ruyter 
entered  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Thames,  ascended 
as  far  as  Gravesend  and 
Rochester,  captured  three 
men-of-war  before  the  eyes 
of  the  English,  and  retired 
-=--=--''"^"-'  .-.>-^f^S>^^"         unmolested.       The     result 

The  Royal  Exchange,  London.  was  a  popular  demand   for 

As  rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1606.  peace,  too  strong  to  be  re- 

sisted ;  and  England  hastened  to  negotiate  a  treaty  at  Breda 
in  1667,  by  which  neither  side  gained  marked  advantage.     All 


TIIK    UKSroKKl)   S'lTAKl'    .M<»NA1{(  IIV  M')l 

conquests  in  ships  and  in  tt-iritoi y  were  to  he  retained  —  a 
Itiovision  wliii-h  gave  New  York  tu  the  English  and  Surinam 
(^l>utc'li  (Juiana)  to  the  Dutch;  the  navigation  acts  were  so  far 
relaxed  that  goods  from  Ilulhuid,  Germany,  or  Flanders  niight 
be  brought  to  England  in  J)utch  vessels  ;  a  provision  for  a 
defensive  alliance  against  all  enemies  was  adopted;  and  the 
pride  of  England  was  salved  by  the  agreement  of  the  Dutch 
to  salute  English  vessels  in  British  waters,  not  as  a  symbol  of 
subjection,  but  as  a  matter  of  international  courtesy. 

The  acquisition  of  the  territory  about  the  Hudson  gave  to 
England  a  continuous  territory  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Amer- 
ica;  and  a  treaty  with  Spain  in  lOTO  confirmed  her  title      ^^^    ^^^ 
to  the  whole  area  as  far  south  as  Carolina.     The  Stuarts       American 
liked  a  proprietary  type  of   colony   modeled    after  the 
palatine  counties  of  Chester  and  Durham  —  of  which  Mary- 
laud  (1032)  was  the  earliest  American  example;  and  Charles 
II.  had  early  (1003)  granted  to  Clarendon,  Albemarle,  Ashley, 
and  others  the  territory  of   Carolina,  with  palatine  powers. 
After   the    conquest    of   New   Amsterdam,   the   former  New 
Netherland    became   the    proprietory   colony   of    New    York, 
and  the  king  soon  created  two  others  —  New  Jersey  (1004) 
and  IVnnsylvania  (l(iSL'). 

Anwng  the  fruits  of  the  Turitan  religious  ferment  were  the 
Quakers,  a  religious  sect  which  went  to  the  extreme  in  lios- 
tility  to  the  ceremonial  of  the  established  church,  and  in 
chami>ionship  of  democratic  principles.  After  twelve  thou- 
sand Quakers  had  been  imprisoned  for  nonconformity,  many 
sought  relief  from  the  Anglican  tyranny  in  the  new  colonies, 
under  the  ])rotection  of  the  Quaker  proprietor,  William  Tenn. 

In  1001  the  Scottish  Privy  Council,  by  order  of  Charles  II., 

had  prrx'laimed  the  reestablishment  of  epi.scoitacy  in  Scot-  414 

.  ,  .  ,  .  ,         1      ;  o      .i.-  I       Charles  II. 

land.     As  a  result  of  this  order,  three  hundred  Scottish        and  Scot. 

ministers  were  driven  from  their  parishes.     The  Scottish  land 

Parliament  now  passed  laws  for  compulsory  attendance  upon 


362  STUARTS   AND   PAKLIAMENT 

the  services  of  the  established  church ;  but  many  congrega- 
tions, especially  in  western  Scotland,  met  in  retired  fields  and 
glens  for  secret  worship  according  to  the  Pi-esbyterian  forms. 
Both  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  strove  to  suppress  these  field- 
meetings,  or  conventicles,  and  the  Covenanters  again  and 
again  broke  out  into  armed  rebellion.  They  were,  of  course, 
repeatedly  beaten  by  the  royal  troops,  but  every  defeat,  and 
the  severe  penalties  which  were  visited  upon  those  taken 
prisoners,  only  served  to  alienate  from  the  Stuarts  the  hearts 
of  their  Scottish  subjects. 

By  1667,  Clarendon  became  unacceptable  both  to  the  king 
and  to  Parliament,  because  he  opposed  religious  toleration  in 
41  "i    Th         ^^^y^  form,  was  severe  in  his  own  morals,  and  advocated 
Cabal  an    unpopular    foreign    policy.       He    was     accordingly 

mmis  ry  removed  from  office,  impeached,  and  banished.  Charles 
now  looked  for  advice  to  a  small  group  of  members  from  his 
Privy  Council.  A  similar  group  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  had 
been  nicknamed  the  "  Cabal "  (an  Arabic  word  meaning 
"  secret ") ;  and  this  term  was  applied  with  special  point  to 
Charles's  coterie  of  five  ministers  —  Clifford,  Arlington,  Buck- 
ingham, Ashley,  and  Lauderdale.  These  men  had  little  in 
common,  but  each  was  personally  agreeable  to  the  king  ;  Buck- 
ingham was  a  man  of  brilliant  intellect,  who  amused  the  king 
and  shared  in  his  vicious  pleasures;  Clifford  was  an  ardent 
Catholic,  and  believed  in  absolute  government;  Ashley  (a  Pres- 
byterian) had  great  political  shrewdness,  and  was  a  strong 
advocate  of  religious  toleration.  To  Charles  these  favorites 
were  an  easy  means  of  shifting  responsibility  from  his  own 
shoulders  ;  for  when  he  had  led  them  into  proposals  which 
failed  to  catch  the  favor  of  the  nation,  he  sacrificed  them  to 
the  popular  clamor,  and  appointed  new  scapegoats  in  their 
place. 

The  downfall  of  the  conservative  Clarendon  was  only  one 
among  many  indications    that   England  was    about  to  enter 


THE    KKSTOIJKI)    M  I  A  K  1'    .M«  >N.\  i;(  H  V  3«)3 

Upon  a  new  pliasi-  of   national   life,  in  iiotli  its  inteinal  and 

its  foreign  policy.      In    HHJl   the  young  king  Louis  XIV.  ..f 

France  "became  his  own  prime  luinister,"  and  entered 

'  4 16.  Change 

upon  a  long  course  of  intrigue  and  aggression.     He  had      in  foreign 

two  principal  aims:  to  extend  the  boundaries  of  France  ^°^^^^ 

to  include  the  mouth  of  the  lUnne  by  absorbing  both  the  Span- 
ish and  the  Dutch  Netherlands;  and  to  restore  the  Catholic 
religion  in  the   I'rotestant  countries  of  western  Europe. 

To  Louis,  champion  of  Catholicism  and  of  absolutism,  Charles 
now  turned  as  to  a  kindred  spirit.  Each  of  these  kings  was 
au  unscrupulous  intriguer  in  polities,  each  was  luxurious  and 
vicious  in  his  daily  life,  each  was  determined  to  rule  his  king- 
dom for  his  own  personal  advantage  and  jdeasure.  The  his- 
tory of  the  period  beginning  with  the  year  U\i'u  is  a  history  of 
intrigues  in  which  the  several  ministers  in  the  Cabal  plotted 
against  one  another,  while  the  monarch  intrigued  with  and 
betrayed  each  in  succession  —  using  their  influence  to  secure 
money  from  Parliament  when  possible,  but  all  the  time  pla}'- 
ing  into  the  hands  of  France,  and  always  relying  on  Louis 
XIV.  for  money  and  for  moral  and  i)erhaps  physical  support. 

In  1GG7  Louis  XIV.  made  his  first  attack  upon  the  Spanish 

Netherlands,  but  was  temjjorarily  checked  by  the  Dutch,  who 

hastened  to  negotiate  a  defensive  "  Triple  Alliance  "'  with  417. 

i:ngland  and  Sweden.     The  stand  thus  taken  by  England   ,    Charles  s 

•'         '^  league  with 

was  due  to  the    sagacity  of    Sir  William    Temple,   who  France 

perceived  in  France  a  far  more  threatening  rival  than  Holland 
could  ever  be  ;  but  the  English  statesman  could  not  restrain 
the  greed  and  treachery  of  the  English  king.  In  1070  a  secret 
treaty  was  negotiated  at  Dover,  by  the  terms  of  which  Charles 
was  at  once  to  abandon  the  Triple  Alliance,  to  declare  war 
against  Holland,  and  to  make  a  strong  naval  demonstration, 
while  Lonis  was  to  attack  Holland  on  land,  and  was  to  con- 
clude with  England  a  commercial  tn-aty.  At  the  first  favor- 
able opportunity,  Charles  was   to   declare    liis   conversion    to 


364  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

Catholicism  and  to  receive  from  France  moral  and,  if  neces- 
sary, military  support  in  overthrowing  the  Anglican  Church. 
In  the  meantime  Charles  received  an  immediate  gift  of 
£150,000  and  the  pledge  of  a  subsidy  of  £225,000  a  year  as 
long  as  the  Dutch  war  lasted.  He  was  also  ultimately  to 
receive  certain  towns  on  the  coast  of  Zealand. 

While  Louis  was  engaged  in  bribing  Sweden  to  desert  the 
Triple  Alliance,  and  in  negotiating  treaties  with  certain  Ger- 
man states,  Charles  first  tricked  Parliament  into  a  grant 

418.  First  '  * 
Declaration    of   £800,000,  on  the   ground   that  England   required  a 

of  Indul-        ^gg^  equal  in  strength  to  either  the  Dutch  or  the  French 

gence  ^  ° 

(March  15,     fleet;    and   then   prorogued   it   (to  forestall   opposition) 

lfi72i 

'  and  issued  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence  (March  15, 1672), 

the  first  step  toAvard  fulfilling  the  secret  treaty  of  Dover. 
This  Declaration  suspended  "the  execution  of  all  and  all 
manner  of  penal  laws  in  matters  ecclesiastical  against  whatso- 
ever sort  of  nonconformists."  Ashley,  though  eager  to  secure 
toleration  for  Presbyterians,  was  loath  to  grant  favors  to  Cath- 
olics ;  but  the  gift  of  the  earldom  of  Shaftesbury  led  him  to 
accept  the  king's  policy.  A  declaration  of  war  against  the 
Dutch  followed  two  days  later ;  but  the  English  merchants, 
who  found  that  their  commercial  interests  suffered  more  from 
the  war  than  from  the  competition  of  the  Dutch,  soon  began 
to  clamor  for  peace. 

Charles's  position  was  especially  weak  because  of  his  spend- 
thrift habits.    A  gambler,  a  libertine,  a  "  prince  of  good  fellows," 

he  enriched  his  favorites,  male  and  female,  not  only  with 

419.  Fail-  ^  '  >  J 

ure  of  the  dukedoms  and  marquisates,  but  also  with  fabulous  gifts  of 
Declaration  jj^oney  and  jewels.  Millions  of  pounds  were  squandered 
within  a  year  after  the  proroguing  of  Parliament,  and  a  new 
session  had  to  be  summoned  early  in  1673  for  fresh  supplies. 
Parliameut  immediately  entered  upon  a  grand  battle  with  the 
king  over  the  recent  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  refusing  to  dis- 
cuss any  other  question  until  that  should  be  settled. 


TIIK    UKsroHKI)   SITAKI'    MDXAIU^IIV  3Go 

Till'  ([Ufstioii  whi'thor  tlif  kind's  pitM-otjative  of  pardon 
coultl  lie  strt'tched  so  as  to  pcriiiit.  him  tr)  uulliry  an  act  of 
I'ailiaineut,  was  vital.  railiament  insistctl  that  in  tliis  ease 
the  kin<,'  was  not  really  pardoning,  bnt  was  licensing  a  crime 
before  its  commission.  Parliament  was  ready  to  relieve 
Protestant  dissenters,  but  Charles  did  not  want  this  rt^form  . 
unless  like  liberties  could  be  granted  Catholics,  and  therefore 
he  withdrew  his  Declaration,  rarlianicnt  immediately  passed 
a  Test  Act,  which  compelled  all  otticers  under  the  crown  to 
take  the  sacranu-nt  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  to  renounce  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 
This  act  forced  the  Catholic  Clifford  out  of  the  position  of 
Lord  Treasurer,  and  the  Duke  of  York  out  of  his  jiosition 
as  Lord  High  Admiral.  Shaftesbury  became  leader  of  the 
Opposition,  and  the  Cabal  was  thus  dissolved. 

Meanwhile,  Louis  XIV.'s  invasion  of  Holland  was  stopped 

by  the  patriotic  Xetherlanders,  who  in    desperation  cut   the 

dikes  and  flooded  the  countrv.     In  order  to  be  free  to     ^„^    „ 

420.  Peace 

fight  Louis,  they  offered  to  make  large  concessions  to  Eng-  with  Hol- 
land ;  and  in  February,  1074,  Parliament  forced  the  king  ^ 
to  agree  to  peace.  The  Dutch  surrendered  all  posts  which 
they  had  captured  from  England  outside  of  Europe,  agreed 
to  arbitrate  all  disputes  between  their  traders  and  the  East 
India  Company,  pledged  themselves  to  pay  an  indemnity  of 
.■t*SO0,O0O,  and  agreed  to  salute  the  English  flag  throughout 
the  narrow  seas;  while  England  made  no  concessions  excejjt 
a  general  agreement  not  to  aid  any  enemies  of  the  Dutch. 
Parliament  now  demanded  that  the  king  shouhl  disband  tlie 
army;  and  Ciiarles  —  having  obtained  a  promise  of  t'l,()0().()00 
annually  from  Louis  XIV.,  to  make  him  independ»'nt  of  Par- 
liament—  i)rorogued  it   for  lifteen   months  (Novendier,  1C.7.')). 

"Then  ciuni',  those  days,  never  to  1m^  recalled  without  421  Soci- 
a  blush,  the  days  of  servitude  without  loyalty,  and  sen-  ^^^gtoraUon 
Ruality  without  love,  of   dwarfish  talents  and   gigantic  drama 


366 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


vices.  .  .  .  The  king  cringed  to  his  rival  that  he  might 
Macmday  trample  on  his  people,  sank  into  a  viceroy  of  France, 
Esmy  on  _  and  pocketed,  with  complacent  infamy,  her  degrading 
' '  insults,  and  her  more  degrading  gold.  The  caresses  of 
harlots,  and  the  jests  of  buffoons,  regulated  the  policy  of  the 
state.  The  government  had  just  ability  enough  to  deceive, 
and  just  religion  enough  to  persecute." 

Such    conditions    as   these   were    most    unfavorable   to   the 
development  of  literature  and  art.     The  theater,  tabooed  under 
the   Commonwealth,  again   became   popular,  but   the   dramas 
produced    by   Wycherly   and   his    successors   were   trivial   in 
/._^-,  subject   and    incident,   superficial 

in  treatment,  and  immoral  in  plot 
and  language.  In  the  compara- 
tively clean  Elizabethan  drama, 
the  female  parts  were  acted  by 
boys  ;  but  now  women  were  found 
to  undertake  even  the  most  de- 
grading parts  in  these  worthless 
plays.  John  Dryden  (1631-1700) 
at  first  continued  the  tradition  of 
the  early  Stuart  dramatists  in  a 
series  of  less  objectionable  trage- 
dies ;  but  the  Elizabethan  inspira- 
tion was  dead,  and  most  of  his 
dramatic  work  is  as  dull  and  as  wicked  as  that  of  his  contem- 
poraries. His  lyric  poetry,  however,  shows  a  mastery  over 
technique,  and  a  power  of  clear,  concise,  forceful  expression 
which  made  him  the  leader  of  a  new  school  of  poetry. 

The  most  popular  poem  of  the  time  was  Butler's  mock-epic 
p    .      Hudibras,   which   satirized   in   witty   verse   the   bigoted 
tanism  in       Puritan  crusade  against  sports  and  the  blundering  Puri- 
tan attempts  at  government  without  experience  in  state- 
craft.    In  contrast  to  all  this  triviality  stands  out  one  noble 


\ 


John  Dryden. 
From  the  painting  by  P.  Kriimer. 


literature 


Tin:  Ki:si(ii;i;i)  stiaim"  monakciiv  3ti7 

work    wliicli    },'ives   expression  to   the   liiirlicst    as]iiratioiis  of 

the    Puritans — liunyan's    PihiriiuH    I'roi/n.ss   (IGTo).       This 

work,  written  by  a  Xonconforiuist  preacher  while  imprisoned 

under  the  Conventicle  Act,  is  an  allegorical  account  of  the 

religious   experiences   of    man    in   his    journey    through   this 

world,  and  it  sets  forth  with  wonderful  vi-vidness  his  emotions 

while    under   conviction   of   sin,   during   temi»tation    and   dis- 

couragenuMit,  and  while  passing  through   the  River  of  Death 

from  mortal  to  immortal  life. 

Strangely   enough,   it  is  to  Charles  II.  that  England  owes 

the  incorporation  of  the  Roy.al  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 

Natural  Knowledge  (1(>62),  which  has  ever  since  given  re-  423.  Foun- 

markable  encouragement  to  scientitic  investigation.     The        dationof 

,- '  1  ,  ,  ■  r  tbe  Royal 

society   si)raug  trom  tlie  weekly   meetings   of   a   grouji  Society 

of  "worthy  persons  inquisitive  into  natural  jjliilosophy  '"  (.1662) 

(a  subject  in  which  the  king  was  as  deepl}'  interestetl  as  it 
was  possible  for  him  to  be  in  anything  serious),  and  nuide 
a  beginning  of  investigations  in  "  I'hysick.  Anatomy,  Geom- 
etry, Astronomy,  .  .  .  Chymieks,  Mechanicks,"  etc.  Under 
Charles  II.,  too,  was  established  (lOToj  the  Royal  Astronomi- 
cal Observatory  at  Greenwich  (now  part  of  London). 


The  return  of  the  Stuarts  proved  how  impossible  had  been 
the  i)olitical  and  religious  schemes  of  the  leaders  of  the  Civil 
War.      The  restoration  of  the  monarchy  with  generous     424    sum- 
powers,  and  the  reestablishment  of  the  Anglican  Church  ^"■J 

with  such  safeguards  as  the  Corporation,  Uniformity,  and 
Conventicle  acts,  show  clearlf  the  ])olitical  and  religious 
preferences  of  the  majority  of  the  nation.  liy  these  acts, 
which  drove  the  Presbyterians  definitely  into  the  ranks  of 
the  Nonconformist  party,  the  quality  of  the  clergy  in  the 
Clmrch  of  England  was  fixed  at  a  low  level  for  a  long  term 
of  years,  since  many  of  the  mo.st  truthful,  intellig.'iit.  devoted, 
ami  spiritual  clergymen  were  disi)laced  by  less  worthy  per- 


368 


STUARTS   AND   I'ARLIAMENT 


sons,  selected  by  the  king  and  liis  irreligious  favorites.  The 
literature  of  the  period  reflects  its  low  moral  tone. 

In  political  life,  as  the  king  grew  more  confident  of  himself, 
the  faults  of  his  father  grew  more  noticeable  in  him  ;  but  his 
financial  dealings  with  Louis  XIV.  left  him  free  from  that 
absolute  dependence  on  Parliament  which  proved  fatal  to 
Charles  I.  Many  Englishmen  to  whom  .these  conditions  were 
intolerable  emigrated  to  America;  the  rest  girded  themselves 
anew  for  battle  in  defense  of  the  ancient  liberties  of  England. 

Meanwhile,  the  long  duel  with  Holland  was  brought  to  an 
end.  Under  the  strain  of  her  century-long  struggle  against 
Spain  and  France,  the  little  state  was  unable  to  hold  her  place 
as  an  aggressive  leading  colonial  power;  and  henceforth  she 
made  common  cause  with  England  as  a  rival  of  Catholic  and 
despotic  France. 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


TOPICS 

(I)  Prove  that  the  so-called  Convention  Parliament  was  not 
entitled  to  the  name  of  Parliament.  (2)  Why  was  this  a  good 
opportunity  to  abolish  antiquated  feudal  conditions  ?  (o)  What 
kind  of  tax  would  have  been  the  most  equitable  substitute  for  the 
extinct  feudal  dues  ?  (4)  Is  an  excise  tax  easy  or  difficult  to  col- 
lect ?  (5)  What  did  the  king  hope  to  gain  by  coupling  the  cause 
of  toleration  for  Roman  Catholics  (which  he  favored)  with  tolera- 
tion for  Nonconformists  (whom  he  disliked)  ?  (6)  Can  you  find 
any  specific  points  of  likeness  between  Holland  and  Carthage,  in 
their  relations  to  their  rivals  ?  (7)  Review  and  compare  the  differ- 
ent Acts  of  Uniformity  ;  (8)  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  ;  and  (9)  the 
Test  Acts  from  the  Reformation  to  1900.  (10)  Why  were  Non- 
conformist ministers  specially  exiled  from  the  cities,  corporate 
towns,  and  boroughs  ? 

(II)  The  great  French  minister,  Mazarin.  (12)  Samuel  Pepys's 
account  of  the  Plague  in  London,  and  the  Great  Fire  of  1GG6. 
(13)  Louis  XIV.  and  his  schemes  of  conquest.  (14)  The  career  of 
William  III.  of  Orange  as  the  defender  of  Holland.  (15)  Capture 
of  New  Amsterdam.  (1(3)  Career  of  William  Penn.  (17)  William 
III.  of  Orange  and  the  brothers  De  Witt.  (18)  Life  of  John  Bun- 
yan.  (19)  Present  status  of  the  Nonconformists,  (20)  Description 
of  a  sea  fight  with  the  Dutch. 


TIIK    KKSlnin:!)    srrAKT    MnNAliniV 


300 


REFERENCES 
See  maps.  pp.  'J80,  ;;s.">,  421  ;   Kiiili.  Xi  ir  Stiub  ut.s^  Atlas,  map  2" 


Creography 


Secondary- 
authorities 


Hrii;lit,  llisdn-ij  nf  Enijlnnd,  II.  722-74"> ;  (Jaidint-r,  Stiiihiit\'< 
Jlistitri/.  cli.s.  xxxvii.  x.\xviii.  U2:I,  ()28-«)."i4,  —  The  Purilan  Ji'rc- 
liitii'H,  ch.  X.  §§  ;J-»»  ;  Hansoine,  Ailcditcid  Hixturif,  6i;i-()31  ; 
Green,  Short  Uistnr;/.  cli.  ix.  §§  !-:>,  —  Ilistorij  of  English  Prople, 
bk.  viii.  chs.  i.  ii.  ;  Montague,  Elfinents  of  Constitutional  History, 
13.')-141  ;  Powell  and  Tont,  History  of  Enrjland,  G44-G')i»  j  Brewer, 
SludetWs  Hume.  ch.  xxiv.  ;  Linganl,  History  of  England,  VII. 
chs.  vi.-ix.  ;  Mi\caulay,  History  of  England,  ch.  ii. ;  Jenks,  Parlia- 
mentary England,  cii.  i.  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  ch.  xli.  ;  Morris.  Ire- 
land (141>4-18«8),  104-172  ;  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,  284-320  ; 
Brown.  History  of  Scotland,  380-104  ;  Bayne,  Chi<-f  Artors  of  the 
Puritan  liirohition,  chs.  v.  xi. ;  .Viry,  The  English  liistoration 
and  Louis  XIV.;  Eggkston,  The  Transit  of  Civilization  from 
England  to  America  ;  FLske.  Beginnings  of  Xen:  England  ;  Lyall, 
Risf  of  British  Dominion  in  India,  cli.  ii.  ;  'ra.swell-Langmead, 
Con.'^titutional  History,  511-o27  ;  Traill,  Social  England,  ch.  xv.  ; 
Routledge,  Chapters  in  tin-  History  of  Popular  Progress,  cli.  i. 

Adams  and  Stepliens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  222-228  ;  Colby,  Sources 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  77-70;  Kendall,  Source-Boo/c, 
nos.  !tO-0."> ;  Henderson.  Side  Lights,  124-157  ;  Gee  and  Hardy, 
Documents  of  Church  History,  nos.  115-120;  Green.  State  Papers 
of  Charles  II.  ;  Figgis,  Englisli  History  from  Original  Sources, 
pt.  i.  1-54  ;  Taylor,  England  unihr  Charhs  II.  ;  Samuel  IVpys, 
Z>jari/ (1000-1000);  Juhn  Kvelyn,  Diary  and  Corn-spondence  (1000- 
1073)  ;  Burnet,  History  of  My  Oicu  Time.  See  also  New  Kngland 
History  Teachers'  As.sociation,  Syllahus,  255-25<5,  —  Historical 
Sources,  §  57. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  hy  English  Poets,  .341- 
344;  Defoe,  Journal  of  the  Plague  of  London;  Dinden,  .\nnus 
Mirahili.x  ;  Henty,  When  London  Burned;  Hugo,  The  Man  Who 
lAtughs  ;  Manning,  Cherry  and  Violet. 


Illustrative 
works 


THE  STUART  LINE 

Time  scale,  20  years  to  one  inch 


^.45 JAMES  I.  Cp  -'"s) 


Henry 

Prince  of  Wales 
d.  1612 


:  Fredericli 

Elector  of  the 
Palatinate 


CHARLES  I.  =  Henrietta  Maria 


Prince  Rupert 


=  Mary 


>  Commonwealth 


1658 
1660 


;  Oliver  Cromwell 

[i  Richard  Cromwell 
^Commouwealth 


Sophia  =  Ernest 

d.  Maj,  1714     Elector  of 
Hanover" 


y47- 


— CHARLES  II. 


F 


James 

Duke  of  Monmouth 
Beheaded,  1085 


Anne  Hyde  =  (i)  JAMES  II.  (2i= 


=  Mary 
of  Modena 


-WILLIAM  lll.  =  MARY  II. 

d.  1694 


ANNE 


James 

The  Pretender 
d.l7C0 


Charles  Edward 

The  Young  Pretender 
d.1788 


Henry 

"Cardinal  York"' 
d.  18U7 


GEORGE  I. 

tp.  481) 


370 


rTTAlTKK    XXVT 
FALI,   UK   TIIK   STIAIMS    (1(;7;;-Hi«8) 

From  1G73  to  1G79  tlie  Earl  of  Danby,  the  new  Lord  Treas- 
urer, followed  Clarendon's  policy  of  building  up  the  royal  power 
and  the  Anglican  Cliiuch.      To  control  successive  Parlia-  425 

nients  he  either  bril)e(l  the  constituencies  to  elect  subser-        Charles  s 
vient   members,  or   bribed   the   members   after   election.  ence  on 

The  money  came  from  France,  Holland,  and  Spain,  all  Louis  XIV. 
eager  to  secure  the  support  of  England  in  thfir  various  conti- 
nental schemes.  The  honest  members  of  Parliament  proved 
almost  as  bad  representatives  as  the  dishonest  ones,  through 
their  silly  bickering  at  a  time  when  united  action  was  most 
needed.  Wlienever  Parliament  threatened  an  injury  to  French 
interests,  Louis  XIV.  induced  Charles  to  dissolve  or  to  pro- 
rogue it,  furnishing  meanwhile  £1,000.000  a  year  to  make  him 
independent  of  money  grants.  In  1077-107S.  lie  paid  Charles 
■€1,000.000  to  delay  a  meeting  of  Parliament  for  ten  months, 
in  order  that  he  might  be  free  to  negotiate  for  peace  with  the 
Dutch  on  his  own  terms. 

To   complete    the    tale   of    dishonesty,    Charles    summoned 

Parliament  before   the   time  agreed  upon,  and  tlvat  bo<ly,  liy 

threatening  war,  forced  Louis  to  conclude  the  disadvau-    .„.    _    .^ 
"  '  426    Fruits 

tageous  treaty  of  Nimwegen  (KwS).  As  a  result  of  thr  of  Charles  8 
si.x  years'  struggle,  the  Dutch  lost  not  an  acre  of  land  on  ^^^'^  "^ 
the  Continent,  and  secureil  favorable  trade  privileges  for  the 
succeeding  twenty-five  years;  while  France,  besides  htsing 
her  hopes  of  coiupiest  in  the  Xetherlaiuls,  was  obliged  to  make 
concessions  to  the  allies  of  the  l)iit(h.  and  was  left  exhausted 
wvi.kek's  kxg.  hist.  —  'J.'J         371 


S72 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


ill  finances   and   in   military    strength.     ^lost   serious  of   all, 

Louis  created  for  liiniself  an  implacable  enemy  in  William 
111.  of  Orange,  nephew  of  Charles  II.,  stadt- 
holder  of  Holland  and  the  foremost  states- 
man of  Europe.  A  year  before  the  end  of 
the  war,  William  bound  the  English  Protes- 
tants to  his  interests  by  marrying  James's 
eldest  daughter  Mary ;  within  the  next  dec- 
ade he  succeeded  in  ranging  all  the  other  lead- 
ing states  of  western  Europe  in  line  against 
France. 

In  England  the  peace  of  Kimwegen  hastened 
a  religious  panic;  for  it  was  felt  that  in  the 
army,  wh-ich  had  been  used  to  put  pressure 
upon  Louis,  Charles  now  had  a  formidable 
means  of  tyranny.  Although  the  secret  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  Dover  had  not  yet  been  dis- 
closed,   people   suspected  that   some   political 

stroke  was  impending. 

Three  days  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Nimwegen,  the 

king  received  a  letter  warning  him  of  a  plot  to  assassinate  him. 

427.  The       This  letter  was  traced  to  a  certain  Dr.  Titus  Oates,  who 

alleged  claimed  that  while  he  was  a  student  in  a  Jesuit  college 

"  Popish  ° 

Plot"  (167 8)  he  had  learned  of  a  plot  of  the  Catholics  to  gain  control 
of  England.  He  implicated  persons  high  in  authority,  among 
them  various  Catholic  peers,  the  secretary  of  the  Duke  of 
York,  the  confessor  of  the  queen,  the  Spanish  minister  to  Eng- 
land, and  King  Louis  XIV.  In  spite  of  Oates's  known  ras- 
cality, his  stories  were  believed,  and  the  rewards  showered 
i;pon  him  incited  other  knaves  to  invent  similar  lies.  Many 
Catholics  were  executed,  and  still  more  were  unjustl}'  impris- 
oned. 

The  statements  of  Oates  and  his  imitators  probabl}'  had  no 
foundation  whatever  in  fact  j  but  just  as  the  excitement  reached 


A  Fireman, 
17th  Century. 


F.M.I,   (»F    lllK    SILAIMS    (^lG7.Miib8)  3To 

its  lipiglit,  sonio  letters   were  made  public    wliich   had   been 

written    by  tin-    Karl  uf   Hanby  and   Charles   to   Kini,'  Louis, 

demaiidiii'' muiiev  ill  return  for  aid  to  the  French  schemes.       ,„„    „  „ 
^  '  428.  Fall 

This  apparent  proof  of  a  widespread  Catlndic  eonspiracy        of  Danby 

added   fuel    to   the   flames.      The   Cavalier    Parliament.  ^        ^ 

which  had  lasted  seventeen  years,  was  dissolved  to  save  Danby 

from  its  wrath ;  but  its  successor  sent  him  to  the  Tower,  and 

forced  the  king   to   accept   Shaftesbury  as  president  of   his 

council.     The  Duke  of  York  took  refuge  upon  the  Continent, 

and  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  an  illegitimate  son  of  the  king, 

at  once  began  plotting  to  secure  the  throne  on  the  death  of 

liis  father. 

To   keej)   himself   in    power.   Shaftesbury   strove   by  every 

means  to  increase  the  panic  against  Catholicism,  and  he  even 

favored  Monmouth.     His  pet  measure  was  an  Exclusion   429.  Exclu- 

liill  which   was  framed  to  debar  James  of  York  from       /i?\^'^^ 

and  Habeas 

succeeding  to  the  throne.     To  prevent  the   passage  ot     Corpus  Act 
this  bill  Charles  was  forced  to  dissolve  Parliament  after  ^        ^ 

a  session  of  only  two  months ;  but  during  that  time  one 
notable  measure  was  i»assed,  by  which  the  subject  was  forever 
guarded  against  imprisonment  for  political  reasons.  The  right 
of  a  prisoner  to  be  tried  promptly  or  to  be  released  from  prison 
was  very  ancient,  but  during  the  Stuart  tyranny  it  fell  into 
disnse  because  judges  under  the  influence  of  the  crown  refused 
to  issue  the  necessary  writs,  or  because  the  prisoner  was  taken 
by  tlu!  king's  orders  to  some  jdace  out  of  reach  of  liis  friends. 
The  Habeas  Cor|)Us  Act  of  1()79  extended  the  earlier  laws 
against  the  illegal  imprisonment  of  Englishmen  so  as  to  make 
them  operative  over  Ireland,  Scotlatid,  the  Channel  Islands,  etc. ; 
provided  heavy  fines  for  keejiing  in  jail  unconvicted  prisoners; 
and  established  a  legal  process  for  finding  out  the  reason  for 
detention  (.Vitpendix  M  1. 

A   fourth  rarliamcnt  was  summoned   in    1(>7'.>  and  a  fifth  in 
1681;  bt)th    were  dissolved   in    order    tt)   prevent   the   passjige 


37-1  STUARTS   AMD   PARLIAMENT 

of  the  Exclusion  Bill.     At  the  session  of  the  latter  which  met 

at  Oxford,  both  parties  appeared  in  arms,  and  civil  war  seemed 

430   F  n  f  i^iiiiiiGnt.     Shaftesbury,  however,  overreached  himself. 

Shaftesbury   He   published   the   most   wild   and   obviously   invented 

'    stories,  alleging  that  tlie  nation  had  been  corrupted  by 

French  gold,  and  declaring  that  the  tire  of  1666  was  due  to  the 

intrigues  of  Catholics;    and  he  finally   schemed  to  seize  the 

king  and  compel  him  to  accept  the  Exclusion  Bill. 

Such  overviolence  defeated  its  own  end.  Charles,  finding 
public  sentiment  inclining  to  his  side,  prosecuted  Shaftesbury 
on  the  charge  of  manufacturing  evidence  against  the  royal 
family.  The  prosecution  failed,  but  the  j)opular  belief  in  the 
Popish  Plot  was  dying  out ;  the  king,  by  abrogating  the  charters 
of  many  Whig  towns  and  filling  their  corporations  with  his 
own  nominees,  insured  the  election  of  a  Tory  Parliament ;  and 
Shaftesbury,  recognizing  his  danger,  fled  to  Holland,  where 
he  died  a  year  later  (January,  1683). 

The  fight  over  the  Exclusion  Bill  gave  rise  to  the  first  party 
names   in   English   history  ;  for    as  soon  as  Shaftesbury  was 
431.  Party    dismissed  from  oflice  he  secured  petitions  for  a  meeting 
Whie^and      °^   Parliament,   so    that   the   Exclusion    Bill    might   be 
Tory  passed.     The  king's  adherents  promptly  got  up  counter- 

petitions  declaring  their  "  abhorrence "  of  any  attempt  to 
interfere  with  the  king's  prerogative  of  assembling  Parliament 
when  he  pleased.  The  former  were  at  once  nicknamed 
"Petitioners,"  and  the  latter  '' Abhorrers  " ;  but  these  mild 
terms  soon  gave  way  to  the  more  offensive  nicknames  of 
"  Whig"  and  "Tory."  "Whig"  was  a  Scottish  term,  and  as 
applied  to  the  Petitioners  meant  that  they  were  at  heart 
rebels  like  the  Scottish  Covenanters ;  "  Tory "  was  an  Irish 
expression  for  a  brigand,  and  implied  that  the  Abhorrers 
were  Popish  thieves.  Thenceforward,  for  many  years,  the 
Whigs  were  distinguished  by  their  willingness  to  resist  and 
even  to  depose  the  king  should  necessity  arise,  and  by  their 


KALI,   (>F   TIIK    SllAKlS    (107:1-1 088) 


37 


defense  of  reliLrious  toleration;  the  Tories  stoml  by  the  heredi- 
tary ri.>,dit  of  the  kiii;^  to  his  i-rouii,  ami  the  aiitliority  of  the 
Ki»isro}ial  Chunh. 

After  Shaftesbury's  Higlit,  James's  enemies  could  up  loni^'er 
proHt  by  the  bugbear  of  the  Popish  Plot.  Driven  to  despera- 
tion, they  attempted  still  wilder  schemes.     In  particular.   432    End  of 

certain  followers  of  Shaftesbury  were  detected  in  a  i)lot    Charles  II.  s 

''  '  reign 

to  assassinate  Charles  as  he  passed  by  the  '' Kye  House"'    (1682-1685) 
on  a  journey  from  Xewniarket  to  London.     The  nation  at  last 


A   l-Kii>T   l"\ii;   'i\    no.    IH.VMI.- 
Fmrn  a  tract  .-iititl.-il  Go'l's  Works  is  th>-  H'«;7./'.s    Woiuhr.  Iti*;:. 

ffrew  so  indifferent  to  alarms  that  by  the  end  of  1(583  it  had 
largely  recovered  its  normal  tone.  .Fames  was  restored  to  his 
office  of  Lord  High  Admiral,  Danby  was  released  from  the 
Tower,  and  (Jates  was  punished  for  his  sliare  in  the  late 
consi)iracy.  Tangier,  in  Morocco,  which  had  ])assed  to  Eng- 
laml  as  the  dowry  of  Charles's  wife,  was  abandoned,  and  its 
garrison  of  seventeen  hundrt'd  huisi- ami  seven  thousand  foot 
was  brought  to  Kngland  and  maintained  in  the  king's  service 
in  violation  of  tin-  law,  without  a  sinu'h"  iirotest.    On  February  (5, 


376  STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 

1685,  Charles  died,  having  previously  received  ahsohition  and 
the  sacraments  from  a  Catholic  priest,  and  was  succeeded  by 
bis  brother  James. 

James  II.  was  lifty-two  years  old  at  his  accession  in  1685. 
The   bitter  experiences  of   his  youth  had  made  him  grow  up 

433.  Acces-  narrow-minded,  limited  in  his  outlook  upon  life,  and 
sion  of  obstinate  in  temper.  Although  he  proved  to  be  a  good 
(Feb.6,1685)  administrator  and  business  man  when  at  the  head  of  the 

navy,  he  lacked  the  wisdom  and  tact  necessary  for  success  as 
a  monarch.  He  attached  himself  to  the  Tory  party,  choosing 
for  his  councilors  the  Earl  of  Rochester  (the  son  of  Charles's 
chancellor  Hyde),  Sydney  Godolphin,  and  the  Earl  of  Sunder- 
land, all  men  of  unstable  if  not  disreputable  character.  To 
bring  in  a  Parliament  submissive  to  the  new  monarch,  they 
used  wholesale  bribery,  with  money  received  from  Louis  XIV. 
The  fruit  was  seen  when  the  new  Parliament  threw  away  its 
chief  means  of  controlling  the  king,  by  granting  to  James  a 
revenue  of  £2,000,000  a  year  for  life. 

At  this  time  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  was  in  Holland,  busily 
engaged   in  preparing  an   expedition   against   James.  ,    With 

434.  Mon-  three  vessels,  bearing  only  eighty  men,  but  containing  a 
R°b^ir^  large  supply  of  arms  for  the  voluuteers  expected  to 
(June,  1685)    rally  to  his  support  in  England,  he  landed  at  Lyme  in 

Dorsetshire,  and  issued  a  sensational  proclamation  against 
James.  The  local  conditions  favored  his  cause.  A  bad  season 
had  thrown  many  agricultural  laborers  out  of  employment,  and 
these,  together  with  others  who  dreaded  a  Catholic  tyranny, 
flocked  to  his  standard,  till  fifteen  hundred  recruits  joined 
him  in  a  single  day,  and  success  seemed  certain.  To  strengthen 
the  wavering,  he  declared  that  liis  mother  was  the  lawful  wife 
of  Charles  II.  at  the  time  of  his  birth,  and  that  he  was  therefore 
rightful  king  of  England. 

Monmouth's  one  chance  of  success  lay  in  proceeding  boldly 
eastward,  but   his  weak  character  and  his  military  incapacity 


FALL   OF    rilF   SIIAKTS    (^ltl7;)-1688)  :')"  ( 

led  him  to  waste  time  in  aimless  marches  and  countermaiclies. 
Consequently  James's  foires  had  time  to  assemble  and  face 
his  ai-my  on  the  field  of  8edgemoor.     Monmouth  risked   435.  Defeat 
a  niglit  attack  ;  blunders,  bad  generalshij),  and  treachery   ^^^^^^^  j°°y 
in  his  ranks  led  to  a  disastrous  defeat ;  and  Monmouth         6. 1685) 
was  taken  prisoner  and    was    soon    executed.      Then   Judge 
Francis  Jeffreys  was  sent  through  the  southwest  counties  as 
special  commissioner  to  try  all  who  had  shared  in  the  rebel- 
lion, and  he  eondueted  what  was  known  as  the  Bloody  Assize. 
Three   hundred   persons   were   executed,   eight   hundred   and 
forty-one   were  sent  to  lifelong  punishment  as  slaves  in  the 
plantations  of  Virginia  or  the  West  Indies,  and  multitudes  of 
others  were  whii)ped.  fined,  and  otherwise  persecuted. 

James  now  felt  his  throne  secure,  and  at  once  prei)ar('d  to 
raise  the  issue  of  the  monarch's  right  to  exercise  the  dispens- 
ing power  in  matters  of  religion.     On  the  pretense  that  435 

Monmouth's  rebellion  proved  that  the  militia  was  inefti-         Jamess 
'  prepara- 

cient,  he  organized  a  small  standing  army  ;  the  troops  thus  tions  for 
raised  were  stationed  at  Hounslow  Heath,  near  London,  absolutism 
probably  for  the  purpose  of  overawing  that  city  ;  Parliament 
was  prorogued  to  avoid  a  conflict;  and  in  a  test  case  in  a  packed 
court,  eleven  out  of  twelve  justices  rendered  a  decision  that 
the  monarch  had  the  right  to  dispense  with  the  Test  Act,  as 
with  any  other  statute,  and  that  his  prerogative  in  this  re- 
spect could  not  legally  be  restrained  by  any  act  of  Parliament. 
James  now  ventured  to  set  up  a  Court  of  Ecclesiastical  Com- 
mission, a  body  which  (under  the  name  of  the  Court  of  High 

Commission)  the  Long  Parliament  had  abolished  in  1041,  437. 

,.  ,    .  James's 

with  a  provision  that  it  should  not  hv,  restored.     With  its   violation  of 

assistance  li«'  ench-avored  to  bring  the  universities,  which  ^a^ 

were  the  strongholds  of  the  Anglican  ChurHi,  under  the  control 

of  Catholic  officials.      He  j»ut  Uoman  Catholics  at  the  head  of 

three  Oxford  colleges,  and  when  all  but  two  of  the  fellows  of 

Magdalen  College  resigned  their  fellowships  rather  than  conn- 


378  STUARTS   AND   I'AULIAMENT 

tenance  his  illegal  action,  he  tilled  the  vacancies  with  Catholics. 
In  Ireland,  the  army,  the  judicial  bench,  and  the  privy  coiTncil 
were  put  under  the  control  of  Catholics.  In  the  larger  cities 
and  towns,  the  corporations  were  remodeled  to  make  places  for 
Catholic  voters,  although  as  a  bribe  to  Nonconformists  a  few  of 
their  leaders  were  also  appointed  to  places.  In  Scotland  James 
dispensed  by  proclamation  with  all  laws  against  Roman  Cath- 
olics ;  and  finally  he  issued  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence  (April  4, 
1687)  granting  freedom  of  worship  to  all  lloman  Catholics  and 
Protestant  dissenters  in  England. 

These  acts  were  all  patiently  endured,  because  the  majority 

of  the  Tory  party,  hoping  that  James  would  be  succeeded  by 

438.  Second   his   Protestant  daughter,  adopted  a  policy  of  "  passive 

Declaration    ^i^edienee "  :    that    is,    thev    ignored   orders    from    the 

of  Indul-  '  7  „        o 

gence(1688)   king  which   required  them  to  perform  illegal  acts,   but 

they  would  not  actively  resist  the  monarch  or  try  to  restrain 
Mm  by  force.  From  this  position  they  were  driven  to  open 
revolt  by  James's  own  tyrannical  folly. 

On  April  22,  1688,  he  issued  another  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence, and  raised  a  definite  issue  with  the  advocates  of  passive 
resistance  by  an  Order  in  Council  requiring  the  clergy  of  all 
denominations  to  read  this  declaration  from  their  pulpits  on 
two  successive  Sundays.  The  most  loyal  were  aghast  at  such 
folly.  At  a  meeting  of  churchmen  called  at  the  palace  of  the 
Archbishop  of  York  in  London,  it  was  decided  that  a  petition 
signed  by  the  archbishop  and  six  representative  bishops  should 
be  presented  to  the  monarch,  praying  him  not  to  compel  them 
to  break  the  law  by  reading  the  declaration,  since  the  right  of 
the  monarch  to  exercise  dispensing  power  had  at  various  times 
been  denied  by  Parliament. 

^^^^61"^  the  bishops  presented  themselves  before  him 
upon  the  with  this  petition,  James  was  furious.  He  threaten- 
(Ma°^June  ^"Slv  declared  that  he  would  keep  the  petition,  and 
1688)  '   Avould  not  forget  who  signed  it.     "No  good  clergyman," 


KALI-   (»F    Till-:    sriAKI'S    (lC,7;}-ir)88)  oTU 

saiil  he,  *'  ever  yet  questioned  the  dispensing  powtM.'  Hishop 
Ken,  of  Hath  and  Wells,  boldly  demanded  that  the  bishops  be 
granted  -the  same  liberty  of  conscience  granted  to  others." 
On  James's  refusal  he  replied,  "  We  have  two  duties,  one  to 
God  and  one  to  your  ^lajesty'*;  and  he  with  Ins  fellows  de- 
parted, saying  "  God's  will  be  done." 

The  bishops  were  now  indicted  before  the  Court  of  the 
King's  Bench  on  the  charge  of  '*  publishing  a  false,  malicious 
and  seditious  libel,"'  and  were  sent  to  the  Tower.  At  their 
trial  (June  29,  H»<SS)  the  bishops  pleaded  (1)  that  there  had 
been  no  ••  publication  "  of  the  petition;  (2)  that  its  statements 
were  not  false,  because  they  were  based  on  parliamentary 
records  ;  and  ('•i)  that  they  were  neither  "  malicious"  nor  ••  sedi- 
tious." The  case  really  involved  two  great  constitutional 
questions  —  that  of  the  king's  right  to  the  disitensing  power, 
aiid  that  of  the  subject's  right  of  petition.  The  verdict  of 
"  Not  guilty '' caused  great  rejoicing  throughout  London,  and 
even  among  the  soldiers  encamped  on  Hounslow  Heath.  There 
were  "fires  over  the   whole  citv,  and  drinking  in  every    ,  ,,      ,^. 

-  '  ^  •'      Letter  of  the 

street  ,  .  .  with  the  play  of  fireworks  and  the  discharge  Papal 

of   firearm.s,  and    the    other    demonstrations  of    furio  is 

gladness  .  .   .  continued  during  the  night."     It  was  now  plain, 

even  to  James,  that  he  had  lost  the  stipport  of  both  houses  of 

Parliament,  of  the  universities,  of  the  entire  body  of  Anglican 

clergy,  of  the  courts,  and  even  of  the  army. 

All  this  time,  William  III.  of  Orange,  James's  son-in-law,  was 

watching  affairs  in  Knglaiul  with  the  keenest  interest.     James's 

most  trusted  officers,  like  Colonel  Churchill  and  the  Earl    440      The 

of  Suiulfrlaml,  were  engaged  in  disloyal  correspondence      P*^'^., 
'  •  •  ...        and  Wil- 

with   William ;   and   Russell,  head  of  the  navy,  visited   liam  III  of 

Holland  in  person  t«>  persuade  him  to  assume  control  in  Orange 

F^ngland.  The  temptation  was  great,  for  he  neeiled  the  assist- 
ance t>f  Knghiud  to  accomplish  the  ruling  purpose  of  liis  life, 
the  ruin  of  Louis  X 1  \'."s  schemes  of  conquest.     Furthermore, 


380  STUARTS   AND   TAKLIAMENT 

the  birth  of  a  son  to  James  on  June  10, 1688,  cut  off  the  direct 
succession  of  the  Princess  Mary,  wife  of  William,  to  the  throne. 
Nevertheless,  the  cautious  prince  absolutely  refused  to  move 
until  he  should  receive  an  authentic  list  of  adherents  "  either 
very  numerous  or  very  high  in  rank." 

On  the  very  day  of  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops,  a  letter  of 
invitation  was  sent  to  him,  signed  by  the  Duke  of  Devonshire, 
representing  the  old  Whig  party  ;  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  a 
leader  among  the  nobility;  the  Earl  of  Danby,  representing 
the  Tories  hostile  to  the  French  alliance;  Crompton,  Bishop 
of  London,  representing  the  higher  clergy ;  Henry  Sidney, 
representing  a  small  group  of  Eadicals ;  Lord  Lumley,  repre- 
senting those  who  had  hitherto  clung  to  James ;  and  Kussell, 
Lord  High  Admiral.  William  was  assured  that  nineteen 
twentieths  of  all  the  nobles  and  gentry  w'oiild  rally  to  his 
support,  and  that  nine  tenths  of  the  army  and  navy  were 
ready  to  desert  James.  At  this  decisive  moment  Louis  XIV. 
plunged  into  a  war  by  invading  the  Palatinate  (§  342)  and  left 
William  free  to  invade  England. 

On  October  10,  1688,  William  issued  a  proclamation  at  the 

Hague,  declaring  that  James's  proceedings  were  a  peril  to  the 

441.  Theex-   liberties  of  English  subjects;  that  the  alleged  birth  of  a 

pulsion  o       g^^  ^^  James  called  for  an  investigation  in  defense  of 

James  II.  * 

(Nov. .1688)    Mary's  rights;  and  that  he  intended  to  go  to  England 

with  forces,  not  with  any  idea  of  conquest,  but  to  promote  the 
assemblage  of  a  free  and  legal  Parliament,  to  settle  the 
questions  in  dispute. 

As  soon  as  William  landed  at  Tor  Bay  in  Devonshire  (Novem- 
ber 5,  1688),  the  royal  troops  began  deserting  to  his  standard, 
and  the  nobles  of  the  west  hastened  to  offer  him  their  services. 
As  he  advanced  eastward,  his  ranks  increased  daily.  Finally, 
when  Colonel  Churchill,  and  even  the  Princess  Anne,  had  gone 
over  to  the  newcomer,  James  suddenly  awoke  to  his  own 
danger,  began   to   dismiss   Catholics  from   office;  and  opened 


FALL   OV   Tin:    srL'AUrs    (1i;t3-1G88) 


381 


negotiations  with  William.  Eleven  days  later,  in  sndden 
IKUiic,  he  tied  from  London  to  the  eoast,  where  he  was  seized 
by  some  overzealons  ottieers  and  bronght  baek  to  London; 
but  he  was  soon  permitted  to  escape,  and  took  refuge  with 
Louis  XIV.  James  once  safely  out  of  the  way,  a  committee 
consisting  of  the  peers  of  the  realm  and  the  mayor  and  alder- 


^^m^~/fJi^^^ 


:M~cZ£^ 


KiN<;  William  IIL's  Aitooraph. 
Portion  of  a  message  to  Parliament.! 

men  of  the  city  of  London  entered  into  negotiations  with 
William  ;  and  it  was  agi-eed  that  a  Convention  Parliament 
should  be  immediately  summoned,  to  adjust  the  affairs  of  the 
kingdom. 

The  dependence  of  f'harles  ILon  Louis  XIV.  created  a  wide- 
spread  fear   for   the    safety   of    the   established    religion    in 
England:    the   Catholics  num])ered  less  than  three   i)er     442    sum- 
cent  of  the  ])oi)iilation,  and  the  panic  was  groundless;  mary 

but  Gates  and  his  fellows  profited  by  it  to  gain  money  and 

1  Translation  :  "  [I  pray]  the  gntnl  I»ril  to  hle.ss  your  (ieliberations  ami  to 
inspire  you  witli  what  is  neede<l  fur  tin-  welfare  ami  tlie  .safety  of  the 
kingdom.     William  K[k.\J." 


382 


STUARTS   AND   PARLIAMENT 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


notoriety  by  their  Popish  Plot  fictions,  while  Shaftesbury  used 
it  to  gain  political  influence  over  Charles,  and  to  try  to  set  up 
as  his  successor  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  a  puppet  whom  he 
could  control.  Each  overshot  his  mark,  and  James  II.  came 
to  the  throne  all  the  stronger  for  their  attacks.  Out  of  the 
turmoil  arose  the  Whig  and  Tory  parties,  divided  on  the  ques- 
tion of  kingly  prerogative  and  of  religious  toleration.  King 
James  II.'s  open  defiance  of  all  constitutional  restraint  soon 
forced  Whig  and  Tory  to  make  common  cause  with  William 
of  Orange  for  the  defense  of  the  constitution.  For  the  fourth 
time  since  the  Norman  conquest,  an  English  monarch  was  de- 
prived of  the  authority  which  he  had  abused;  but  this  time, 
happily,  without  a  war,  and  wdthout  the  death  of  the  offending 
monarch. 

TOPICS 

(1)  Why  did  Louis  XIV.  find  it  impossible  to  conquer  Holland  ? 
(2)  How  did  Gates  dare  to  implicate  such  powerful  persons  in  the 
Popish  Plot  ?  (3)  What  valid  objections  were  there  to  the  Exclu- 
sion Bill  ?  (4)  Can  you  suggest  anything  which  would  justify  the 
suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  ?  (5)  Prove  that  Parliament 
had  a  right  to  exclude  James  of  York  from  the  throne.  (6^  Were 
the    Petitioners    really    infringing    on    the     king's     prerogative  ? 

(7)  Show  exactly  how  a  new  Parliament  could  be  shaped  in 
advance    by    changing   the    charters    of    the    towns    (cf.   §  568). 

(8)  How  would  William  of  Orange  be  likely  to  view  Monmouth's 
expedition  against  James  ?  (9)  Show  the  weakness  of  the  doctrine 
of  "passive  obedience."  (10)  What  plausible  argument  could 
James  bring  to  show  that  the  bishops  had  "  published  a  libel"  ? 
(11)  Why  did  the  birth  of  James's  son  affect  the  advocates  of 
passive  resistance  ?  (12)  Did  William  have  any  legal  right  to  in- 
terfere in  English  affairs  ? 

(13)  The  habeas  corpus  principle  as  it  appears  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States.  (14)  Monmouth's  Rebellion. 
(15)  Shaftesbury's  character,  as  portrayed  in  Dryden's  Absalom 
and  AcMtophel.  (IG)  A  sketch  of  Jeffreys's  procedure  in  the 
Bloody  Assize.  (17)  James's  last  fortnight  in  England.  (18)  The 
relations  of  James  with  John  Churchill,  afterwards  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough. (19)  City  government  in  England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury.    (20)  Character  of  James  II, 


FALL    (»!••   TIIK    SITAKIS    (1U7;J-1«J88) 


383 


REFERENCES 


Geography 

Secondary 
authorities 


See  map,  pp.  384,  ;]H5  ;  (ianliiur,  Srhiml  Athts,  map  ;J4. 

Bright,  History  nf  Eiiyldinl,  II.  745-80 1  ;  Gardiner,  StudeiU's 
History,  chs.  xxxix.-xli.  ;  Kaiisoiue,  Aihunred  History,  ((."J-J-ijtjti ; 
(Jreeii,  ^hnrt  History,  ch.  ix.  §§  4-7  ;  History  of  thi-  Emjlish 
Pttipli ,  bk.  viii.  chs.  ii.  iii.  ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitntionnl 
History,  141-14(> ;  Powtll  and  Tout,  History  of  Enyluiid,  (;r){»-()7t» ; 
Maoaulay,  History  of  Enylamh  chs.  ii.-x.  ;  Brewer,  StudiiWs 
//«mf,  chs.  xxiv.-xxvi.  ;  Lingard.  History  of  Emjland,  VH.  ch.  x., 
VIII.;  Hale,  The  Foil  of  the  Stiuirts ;  Airy,  The  English  Bestoni- 
tion  and  Loitis  A'/ 1'.;  Yonge,  llie  English  liivolntion  ;  Jenks, 
P<trlinment<n-y  England,  ch.  ii.  ;  Lawles-s,  Ireland,  ch.  xlii.  ;  Lang, 
History  of  Scotland.  III.  o2'-i2:i,  IV. ;  Brown,  History  of  Srotlund, 
II.  4n.">-454  ;  Ta.swell-Languiead,  (.'onstitntional  History,  y'J7-o42  ; 
Knutledge,  Popular  Progress,  chs.  ii.  iii.  ;  (iodfrey.  Social  Life 
under  the  Stuarts;  Taylor,  England  under  Charles  II. \  Traill, 
Shnftishury. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  noa.  i'29-2:]4  ;  Colby.  Sources 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  80-82  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
nos.  '.K5-101  ;  Hill,  Lihirty  Documents,  ch.  viii.  and  A  pp.  C  ; 
Henderson.  Side  Lights,  l."i8-r.>2  ;  Figgis.  English  History  from 
Original  Sources,  pt.  i.  ■■),^107.  pt.  ii.  1-58;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Docu- 
ments of  Church  History,  nos.  121,  122  ;  Evelyn,  Diary  (I(i73-1<!8H)  ; 
Burnet,  History  of  My  Oirn  Time ;  Luthell,  Brief  Relation  of 
State  Affairs,  I.;  H.  ."Sidney.  Diary.  See  New  Kngland  History 
Peachers' Association,  Syllabus. '2'>i'>.  — Historical  Sources,  174-17<> 
(for  this  and  sub.seipient  peri<Hls). 

Bates  and  Conian,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets.  :;44- 
345;  Be.sant.  For  Faith  and  Freedom;  Blackmore,  I^ima  Doone  ; 
Crockett,  The  Men  of  the  JIoss  Hags;  Doyle,  Micah  Clarke; 
Drj'den.  Absalom  and  Achilophel  ;  Lyall,  In  the  (ioldeu  Days; 
Scott,  Old  Mortality,  —  J'eoiril  of  the  Peak. 


Illustrative 
works 


384 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

LIMITATION  OF  THE  ROYAL  AUTHORITY:    WILLIAM  III. 

(108!)-1702) 

The  Convention  Parliament  was  anxious  to  give  a  show  of 
legality  to  what  was  really  a  revolution.     The  extreme  defend- 

443.  Depo-  ers  of  monarchy  by  divine  right  insisted  that  James  was 
sition  of  ^^^Yi  king,  reigning  but  not  ruling;  the  moderates  urged 
(Jan.,  1689)   that   he   had   virtually   abdicated   the   throne;  but   the 

radicals,  who  had  risked  their  lives  to  end  his  tyranny, 
declared  that  he  had  forfeited  the  power  vested  in  him  by  the 
people,  and  should  be  summarily  deposed  by  the  people.  An 
ingenious  but  self-contradictory  "  omnibus  declaration "  was 
drawn  up  and  passed  by  Parliament,  which  declared  that 
"King  James  II.  having  endeavoured  to  subvert  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  kingdom  by  breaking  the  original  contract  between 
king  and  people,  and  by  the  advice  of  Jesuits  and  other 
wicked  persons  having  violated  the  fundamental  laws,  and 
having  withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  country,  has  abdicated  the 
government,  and  the  throne  has  thereby  become  vacant." 

The  champions  of  liberty  were  now  determined  to  end  once 
for  all  the  quarrels  over  the  royal  prerogative.     A  Declaration 

444.  Decla-  of  the  Fundamental  Rights  of  the  English  people  was 
Tr^^ht^  therefore  presented  to  William  and  Mary,  and,  on  their 
(Feb.,  1689)   acceptance  of  the  principles  laid  down  in  this  declaration 

(February  13,  1689),  they  were  made  joint  sovereigns  of 
England,  William  to  admiuister  the  government  during  his 
life,  and  the  succession  thereafter  to  jtass  in  order  (1)  to  Mary; 
(2)  to  the  children  of  William  and  Maiy ;  (3)  to  the  Princess 

386 


wiij.iAM  111.  387 

Anne;  (4)  to  Anne's  eliililirn.  The  Convention  Parliament 
then  passed  a  resolution  declaring  that  it  was  a  genuine 
Parliament,  "notwithstanding  faults  in  the  writ  by  which  it 
had  been  summoned,"  and  this  resolution  was  ratitied  by  the 
new  monarchs.  Thenceforth  the  monarchs  of  England  were 
to  rule  by  hereditary  right  and  by  the  authority  derived  from 
the  representatives  of  the  people,  and  they  were  to  hold  their 
office  only  on  the  conditions  laid  down  in  the  Declaration  of 
Rights. 

The  first  measures  passed  by  this  self-constituted  Parliament 
were  far-reaching.     A  permanent   distinction  was  now  made 
between  the  "civil  list"  (hereditary  taxes  set  apart  for      445.  Con- 
the  support  of  the  crown)  and  the  various  parliamentary     ^  'changes 
taxes   levied   for   the   support   of    the'  government;    a  tl689) 

Tolorati(m  Act  gave  to  Protestant  dissenters,  except  Unita- 
rians, the  right  to  assend)le  for  worship ;  an  Act  of  Supremacy 
and  Allegiance  required  all  holders  of  office  in  church  and 
state  to  take  oath  to  support  the  new  monarchs,  thus  forcing 
about  four  hundred  "'  nonjuring  clergymen  *'  to  give  up 
their  livings  ;  and  a  Mutiny  Act  gave  to  the  crown  the  right  to 
enforce  discipline  in  the  army  by  courts-martial,  but  this 
right  was  limited  at  first  to  a  period  of  six  months,  and  there- 
after to  a  single  year.  Thus  causes  of  disturbance  were  re- 
moved, the  monarchs  were  given  the  power  to  repress  disorder, 
and  at  the  same  time  Parliament  retained  the  sources  of  that 
power  in  its  mvn  hands. 

Lastly,  and  most  important  of  all,  Parliament  framed  into  a 
statute  and  enacted  (October  9,  1<')8«))  all  the  important  parts 
of  the  Dedarati.m  of  Rights  which  had  been  presented  to   ^^g    ^.^^  ^^ 

William  and  Mary.     This  "  Pill  of  Rights  "  formally  de-  Rights 

..,,.„,  f      ,,  <Oct ,1689) 

clared  that  it  is  unconstitutional  and  illegal  for  the  mon- 
arch (1)  to  suspend  or  dispense  with  the  laws;   C2)  to  create  a 
Court  of  Ecclesiastical  Commission;  (."»)  to  levy  taxes  without  a 
grant  from  Parliament ;  (I)  to  maintain  a  standing  army  ;  (5)  to 


388 


IIISE   OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENT 


rule  without  frequent  assemblings  of  Parliament ;  (6)  to  cause 
excessive  bail  to  be  demanded,  or  excessive  punishment  to  be 
inflicted.  It  further  secured  to  subjects  (1)  the  right  to  bear 
arms  ;  (2)  the  right  to  elect  their  representatives  without  inter- 
ference by  the  monarch ;  (3)  the  right  of  free  debate  in 
Parliament ;  and  (4)  the  right  to  petition  the  monarch  for  re- 
dress of  grievances.  Finally  it  so  defined  the  right  of  succes- 
sion as  to  exclude  Catholics  from  the  throne.  (Appendix  IST.) 
Meanwhile  James  II.  was  making  a  desperate  effort  to  get 
control  of  Ireland,  and  Louis  XIV.  was  aiding  him  with  arms, 

447.  Sub-      money,  and  troops,  hoping  to  use  Ireland  as  a  base  for 

IreliT/^       French    operations 

(1690-1691)  against  England. 
In  March,  1689,  James 
landed  at  Kinsale,  and 
moved  thence  first  to  Cork 
and  Dublin  and  then  into 
the  north  of  Ireland. 
Londonderry  w^as  so  stub- 
bornly defended  by  Wil- 
liam's forces  that  in  a 
siege  of  one  hundred  and 
five  days  James  was  un- 
able to  take  it ;  and  after 
a  part  of  his  army  had 
made  a  like  failure  at 
Enniskillen,  he  withdrew 
to  the  south. 

A  year  passed  before 
William  was  at  liberty  to 
go  in  person  to  Ireland ; 
but    in    June,    1G90,    he 

landed    at    P>elfast,    and  g^^^^^^  „^,  ^.^^  ^^^.^^ 

with    a    force     of    36,000  From  a  Dutch  painting,  1691. 


WIT.T.IAM    III.  389 

men  advanced  to  meet  James's  aiiiiy  of  27,000.  July  1, 1090, 
a  dei-isive  battle  was  fought  on  the  south  side  of  the  livt-r 
Hoyne,  near  J )ioi,'heda.  After  a  severe  contest,  in  whicli  Wil- 
liam was  wonmleil,  liis  troops  were  vietorious.  James  tied  to 
Dublin,  and  thent-e  to  France,  where  he  passed  the  rest  of  his 
life  at  8t.  (iernuiin  (^near  Taris)  as  a  pensioner  of  the-  French 
court.  Some  months  were  spent  by  William  in  bringing 
various  fortresses  in  Ireland  to  submission,  and  the  last  strong- 
hold yielded  only  on  condition  that  as  many  of  the  Irish 
troops  as  chose  might  emigrate  to  France  and  take  service 
with  Louis  XIV.  About  ten  thousand  men  did  so,  and  subse- 
quently won  renown  on  various  fields  of  battle. 

Soon  after  the  fall  of  James,  the  Scottish  Parliament  declai-ed 
that  lie  had  forfeiti-d  his  crown,  and  named  William  and  ^Mary 
as  their  new  sovereigns,  on  condition  that  they  accepted  448.  Pacifi- 
a  Scottish  Declaration  of  Rights  confirming  Presbyterian-  Scotland 
ism  as  the  state  religion.  Graham  of  Claverhouse,  now  il689  1692; 
Viscount  Dundee,  rallied  the  Scottish  Highlanders  to  the 
defense  of  the  Stuarts,  but  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Killie- 
crankie,  July  27,  1080.  The  clans,  lacking  a  leader,  dispersed 
to  their  homes,  and  most  of  them  soon  gave  in  their  submis- 
sion to  the  new  govennnent.  Unfortunately  William  intrusted 
the  conduct  of  aftairs  to  a  harsh  and  cruel  officer,  Dalrym- 
ph'  of  Stair,  who  misused  his  powers  by  authorizing  the 
slaughter  of  the  entirt-  clan  Macdonald  because  it  was  slow  in 
submitting.  February  Vi,  1002,  thirty-eight  members  of  this 
clan  were  murdered  at  their  homes  in  the  valley  of  (Jlencoe, 
and  the  rest  were  driven  into  the  mountains  to  starve  or  freeze. 
William's  fault  in  this  matter  appears  to  have  been  that  he 
authorized  extreme  severity  without  first  making  sure  that  it 
was  neces.sary. 

Louis  XIV.'s  attack  upon  the  Palatinate  (which  gave  Wil- 
liam his  opportunity  to  invade  Fngland)  (juickly  brought  on  a 
general    Eurnpoan  war.  in   wliiih   Knglaml,   Holland,  the  Em- 


390  RISE   OF    PARTY   GOVERNMENT 

peror,  Sweden,  Spain,  and  numerous  smaller  states,  formed  a 

Grand  Alliance  against  France.     Louis  had  built  up  a  great 

449    Naval   "^'^J'  hoping  to  destroy  the  supremacy  of  England  and 

phase  of  the   Holland  on  the  seas;  and  on  the  day  before  the  battle  of 

War  the  Boyne  (June  30,  1691)  Admiral  Tourville  with  70 

(1691-1692)    ships  fought  the  allied  English  and  Dutch  fleet  of  56 

ships  off  Beachy  Head.     The  English  were  badly  commanded, 

and,  although  the  Dutch  fought  bravely,  the  French  gained 

the  day. 

Elated  by  this  victory,  Louis  planned  an  invasion  of  Eng- 
land, to  restore  James  II.  to  the  throne,  and  prepared  an  army 
of  30,000  troops,  to  be  convoyed  by  50  ships  of  the  line.  In 
May,  1692,  the  French  admiral  Tourville  attempted  to  secure 
control  of  the  Channel  by  an  attack  upon  the  combined  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch  fleet  of  90  vessels  cruising  off  La  Hogue  on 
the  coast  of  France.  The  Dutch  avoided  the  contest,  but  the 
English  fought  desperately  to  wipe  out  the  disgrace  of  Beachy 
Head.  The  French  fleet  was  routed,  thirteen  ships  were  driven 
ashore,  and  a  few  others  escaped  to  the  near-by  harbor  of 
Cherbourg,  where  they  were  burned  b}-  some  daring  English 
sailors. 

Meanwhile  William  was  taking  the  surest  method  of  fend- 
ing off  the  invasion  of   England,  by  keeping  the  troops  of 

>i  =  n    A    *•     Louis  busv  on  the  French  frontiers.     Although  defeated 
450.  Conti-  "^  °  _ 

nental  at  Steinkirk  in  August,  1692,  and  again  at  Neerwinden 

PaStinlte^   in  July,  1693,  he  inflicted  such  losses  upon  Louis  that 
War  the  latter  became  anxious  to  make  peace.     This  anxiety 

( lfiQ2— 1697^ 

was  increased  in  1695,  when  William  captured  Namur, 
the  first  defeat  of  France  on  land  in  fifty-two  years.  The  war 
dragged  on  until  1697,  by  which  time  Fi-ance  was  absolutely 
exhausted,  and  therefore  no  longer  to  be  dreaded ;  the  critical 
condition  of  the  childless  king  of  Spain  made  it  likely  that 
rivalry  over  his  dominions  might  soon  break  up  the  Grand 
Alliance;  and  the  peace  of  Eyswick  (September,  1697)  was  there- 


W'll.I.IAM    III.  391 

fore  ai,M-t'P(l  upon.      The  terms  between  France  and   England 

iiielmled  the  restoration  of  all  the  conquests  made  in  America, 

where  the  colonies  of  both  powers  luul  carried  on  war  on  their 

own  account;  anil  Louis  further  agreed  to  recognize  William 

as    legitimate  monarch   of  England,   and   not  to  lend  aid    to 

Jacobite  '  intrigues  against  him. 

In    selecting    his    earliest   ministers,    William    thought   to 

strengthen    his    position    by    employing     both    Whigs     and 

Tories;  but  he  soon   found  that  he  could  count  on  the       451    jhe 

support  only  of  that  ixirty  which  had  raised  him  to  the  ^^^®  °^ 

^  ^  the  Whig 

throne,  and  that  whenever  he  was  absent  upon  the  Con-  junto 

tinent  the  composite  ministry  fell  into  dissensions  and  <,1694> 

(piarrels.    The  death  of  Queen  ^lary,  in  1()94,  left  him  still  less 

to  hope  for  from  the  Tories,  since  he  had  no  longer  any  claim 

through  his  wife  to  be  the  successor  of  James  II.     He  was 

therefore  gratlually  driven  to  rely  upon  a  single  strong  Whig 

minister,  and  to  surround  him  with  colleagues  from  his  own 

party. 

In  1(>04,  under  the  advice  of  the  Earl  of  Sunderland,  Wil- 
liam began  to  replace  his  Tory  ministers  with  Whigs,  and  thus 
gradually  built  up  the  so-called  "Whig  Junto,"  the  precursor 
of  the  one-party  ministries  of  the  present  day.  In  this  minis- 
try the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury  was  Secretary  of  State,  and  anumg 
the  other  members  was  Somers,  who  had  drawn  up  the  Decla- 
ration of  Rights ;  Russell,  who  had  carried  all  the  navy  to  Wil- 
liam's support ;  and  Montagu,  rhancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  a 
man  of  markfd  liiiancial  altility. 

Monta'-Tu's  fame  rests  upon  his  creation  of  the  Rank  of  Eng- 
land (lO'.M).     Roth  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  had  relied  uiton 
^'oldsmiths  for  money  loans  and  for  checks  to  be  u.sed  in       452    The 
making  payments  of  large  sums.    Now  a  group  of  capital-        EiTe^and 
ists  was  granted  a  charter  as  the  (Jovernor  and  Company  (1694) 

of   the   Rank  of   England   (ir»*)4),  with   special    jirivileges,  in 

*  From  Jartthux,  tlic  Ijiliii  t'<|iiiv:il<-iit  of  .laiiK-s. 
w.vi.KKi!'*  km;.  iii*t.  —  24 


392  RISE   OF    PARTY   GOVERNMENT 

return  for  a  loan  of  £1,000,000  to  the  yovenuueiit.  This  and 
a  previous  sum  borrowed  from  individuals  iov  that  purpose 
formed  the  nucleus  of  a  continuous  national  debt,  which  had 
some  effect  toward  making  the  government  stable.  The  use- 
fulness of  the  bank  was  further  shown,  in  1096,  when  the 
government  undertook  to  recoin  all  the  metallic  money  in  the 
country,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of  the  mutilated  and 
depreciated  coin  then  in  circulation,  and  was  obliged  to  borrow 
£1,200,000  for  redeeming  the  old  currency  at  its  face  value. 
One  measure  framed  by  the  Whig  ministry  aimed  to  secure  an 
expression  of  the  will  of  the  people  at  fairly  frequent  intervals. 
453.  Consti-   The   earlier   Triennial  Act  of    1041  (§   358)   prevented 

tutional         ^j^^  monarch  from  ruling  without  a  Parliament,  but  did 

reforms 

(1694-1695)  not  prevent  his  prolonging  the  life  of  a  single  Parlia- 
ment indefinitely.  For  example,  Charles  II.  retained  the  Cav- 
alier Parliament  for  seventeen  years,  although  it  ceased  long 
before  that  time  to  express  the  will  of  the  nation.  A  new 
Triennial  Act  (1694)  provided  that  no  Parliament  shonld  have 
longer  duration  than  three  years. 

In  1695  the  House  of  Commons  refused  to  renew  the, Licens- 
ing Act,  which  since  the  Restoration  had  muzzled  the  press  by 
forbidding  the  printing  of  legal,  political,  religious,  and  scien- 
tific works  without  a  license  from  the  government.  Tlnis, 
almost  unconsciously,  England  gained  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
although  it  was  still  considered  a  violation  of  the  special  privi- 
leges of  Parliament  to  publish  the  debates  of  that  body. 

The  later  years  of  William's  reign  were  a  period  of  great 

anxiety.     The  moral  tone    of   Parliament  Avas  very  low,  and 

bribery,  direct   or   indirect,   was   freely  used   to    secure 

sition  to         the  pasfeage  of  important  measures.      The  Jacobites,  at 
^^™      ■   home  and  abroad,  worked  unceasingly  to  undermine  him 
and  restore  the  Stuarts  to  the  throne.     The  Dutch  were  jealous 
of  his  absorption  in  English  affairs,  and  the  English  were  jeal- 
ous of  the   Dutch  advisers  whom  he  kept  near  him  and  re- 


WlI.l.IAM    III.  o'Jo 

wanU'd  with  lands  and  lionors  because  he  tonUl  twist  them. 
Indeed,  he  knew  not  what  Englishman  to  trust;  for  the  dis- 
covery of  plot  after  plot  showed  that  even  those  who,  like 
Marlliorough,  had  intrigued  to  place  him  on  the  throne,  were 
now  in  correspondence  with  James  II.  In  1606  the  discovery 
of  a  i»lot  to  assassinate  him  led  to  some  revival  of  loyalty,  and 
most  of  the  members  of  Parliament  joined  an  association  to 
carry  nut  the  Act  of  Settlement  on  his  death.  Nevertheless 
they  continued  to  oppose  his  measures,  and  thus  to  weaken 
his  influence  abroad. 

Amid  these  difficulties,  William  was  called  upon  once  more 
to   protect   Europe    against    the    ambitions    of    Louis    XI\'. 
Charles  XL,  king  of  Spain,  was  childless  and  infirm  in      455.  Dis- 
health  ;  his  eldest  sister  was  married  to  Louis  XIV.,  and    jjie^spanish 
although   in   the   nuuriage  contract  she   had   renounced     succession 
all  rights  to  the  succession  for  herself  and  her  children,  it  was 
probable  that  on  Charles's  death  Louis  would  claim  the  Spanish 
inheritance  for  some  member  of  his  family.     In  this  case  France 
would  control   not  only  (1)  the   Spanish   peninsula,  but   also 
(!')  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  thus  exposing  Holland  to  attack; 
(3)  ^lilan,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  thus  threatening  the  Emperor's 
power  in  Italy;  and  (4)  Spanish  America,  thus  endangering 
England's  colonial    possessions.     ''The  king  of  Spain's        Matthew 
health,"  wrote   an   English   diplomat   in  1698,  "is   the    ^/'"'■(^"fr 
weathergla.ss   upon  which    all    our    politicians  look;    as     fax.  Prime 
that  ri.ses  or  falls  we  look  pleasant  or  uneasy."  Mimstcr 

The  nearest  legal  ht'ir  to  the  throne  of  Spain  was  thf  l-'ni- 
]»eror  Lei'pold  I.,  rulei- of  .Vustria:  but  Fraiic*'  woidd  nut  hear 
of  his  adding  the  Spanish  domains  to  his  already  large  pos- 
sessions. William  claimed  that  the  great  Eur(»p«'an  powers 
might  in  st'lf-<lefense  insist  on  s\i(h  a  disposition  of  the  Span- 
ish territories  as  would  sfcure  a  "  lialance  of  jiowrr  "  ;  that  is, 
would  prevent  either  France  or  .Vustria  from  becoming  strong 
enough  to  endanger  the  safety  of  the  other  European  states. 


"""s 

^ 

o 

_J 

c^ 

•«* 

a 

I^ 

z 

— H 

< 
_z_ 

00 

o 

^ 

UJ 

■H 

u. 

^ 

^  -^ 

H    r 

Z 
4 

z 
< 

Z 

__j_ 

fc  6 

S 

2 

Ss 

X 

•a 

X 

w    . 

^ 

-1 

CO  ,3 

— J 

a2 

( 

L 

o 

-T'' 

-  O 

«l 

UJ| 

lo 

EC  ^ 

Q 

z 

— «a 

3 

Z 

11- 

1  s 

C/2 

BCS 

§1 

UJ 

u. 

5^ 

E^     (2^ 

^  w 

q  H 

;^  - 

OJ 

<  ^* 

a  a 

if 

41 

^  2 

■^  3 

o  ^ 

> 

xn 

^ 

_: 

— oe 

z 

UJ 

P4 

> 

X 

-^ 

>-  — 

EC 

^ 

Z 

"S 

Q 

UJ 

X 

s 

M 

tB 

l*=1 

• 

>^(i:-' 


3  =  " CO 


394 


WIM.IA.M    III.  '■)%') 

lie  therefore  negotiattMl  ;i  Taititioii  Tn-aty  with  Louis  (1700) 
by  wliifli  F'raiM't'  was  to  have  tlic  SiKUiish  possessions  in  Italy, 
anil  Austria  to  have  thi-  rest,  witli  a  few  exi;ei)tions.  In 
November  of  tin*  same  yvdv,  C"harl<-s  II.  died,  leaving  all  his 
dominions  by  will  to  Philii)  of  Anjou,  grandson  of  L(mis  XIV. 
Louis  immediately  repudiated  his  treaties  with  William,  and 
accepted  the  crown  of  Spain  in  behalf  of  his  grandson. 

By  this  time  the  Tories  were  once  morf  in  control  of  the 
English  Parliament,  and   as   they  supported   a   peace   i)olicy, 
Louis's  action  was  not  for  the  moment  resented.     Mean-       456.  The 
while  Parliament  framed  a  new  Act  of  Settlement,  made     settlement 
necessary  by  the  death  of  Anne's  only  remaining  child  <1701i 

in  July,  1700.  Tt  decreed  that  on  Anne's  death  the  crown 
should  pass  to  Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover  (granddaughter  of 
James  I.),  and  to  her  Protestant  heirs  in  regular  succession. 

Certain  restraints  placed  upt)n  the  monarchy  made  this  act 
a  kind  of  supplementary  bill  of  rights.  (1)  Monarchs  were 
not  to  involve  England  in  war  on  behalf  of  their  Continental 
territories;  (2)  the  right  of  pardon  was  taken  away  from 
them  in  cases  of  impeachment  of  a  minister;  (3)  judges  were 
to  hold  otiice  for  life,  unless  removed  for  misconduct  on  the 
initiative  of  Parliament ;  (4)  all  persons  who  held  any  office 
or  pension  from  the  crown  w^ere  made  ineligible  for  member- 
ship in  the  House  of  Commons.  A  few  years  later  this  last 
restriction  was  relaxed,  so  that  oidy  holders  of  newly  created 
offices  and  pensions  were  ineligible  ;  and  persons  who  accepted 
office  while  members  of  the  House,  thus  forfeiting  their  seats, 
might  be  immediately  rt't^lected  if  their  constituents  so  desired. 

In  1701  Louis  XIV.  justified  William's  fears  by  seizing  cer- 
tain iKirrier  f(n-tresses  on  the  southern  boundary  of  the       45-    j^^ 

Spanish  X'etherlands,  and  bv  refusing  to  recognize  Aus-  second 

.   ,        ,    .  .        '  ...  -,  Grand  AUi 

tria  s  claim  to  any   portion  ot   Spanish  territory.      Sej)-     ance  Sept 

tember  7,  1701,  .\ustria.  HolUmd.  and  Kngland  formed  a  1701  > 

(rrand   Alliance  against  France  for  the  purpose  of  defending 


396 


KISE    OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENT 


the  Spanisli  Xetherlands,  securing  for  Leopold  the  Italian  pos- 
sessions of  Spain,  and  preventing  the  future  iniion  of  the  crowns 
of  France  and  Spain.  (Jn  the  day  before  this  treaty  was 
signed,  James  II.  died,  and  Louis  outraged  the  national  pride 
of  every  Englishman  by  publicly  recognizing  his  son,  young 
James  Stuart,  as  King 
James  III.  of  England. 
In  the  height  of  the  excite- 
ment William  shrewdly 
dissolved  Parliament,  and 
in  the  new  election  se- 
cured a  Whig  majority  to 
support  his  war  policy; 
but  on  March  8,  1702,  he 
died  as  the  result  of  a 
fall  from  his  horse,  leav- 
ing to  his  sister-in-law 
Anne  the  task  of  sup- 
porting Europe  against 
France,  and  defending  her 
own  throne  against  her 
brother  James,  whom  the 
Whigs  called  "  the  Pre- 
tender." 

William  III.  of  Orange 
was  undoubtedly  one  of 

xeo    «!.         the     world's     great 
458.  Char-  ® 

acter  of  statesmen.    Born  to 

William  III.  ^j^g  hereditary  stadtholdership  of  Holland,  he  was  de- 
prived of  that  office  through  a  democratic  movement  led  by 
the  brothers  I)e  Witt.  From  early  youth  he  set  himself  with 
cold,  grim  determination  to  win  back  his  birthright,  showing 
in  his  hostility  to  the  De  Witts  and  to  Louis  XIY.  tenacity  of 
purpose,  courage,  and  ceaseless  activity.     His  grasp  of  affairs 


Statue  of  William  III. 
From  a  bronze  at  Wimlsor  Castle. 


WILLIAM  in.  397 

was  extraorilinary.  To  him  Eiiroite  was  a  che.ssl)oard,  on 
which  kings,  eoimts,  duki's,  ami  elei-tors  were  made  to  move 
from  square  to  s(iuare,  guided  hy  liis  unerring  skill.  In  war, 
although  not  a  great  tactician  or  winner  of  battles,  he  was  a 
great  strategist.  Campaigns,  not  battles,  were  his  forte ;  and 
his  least  brilliant  operations  almost  always  resulted  in  a  net 
loss  to  the  enemy.  His  cold,  forbidding  temper,  his  absori»tion 
in  public  affairs,  his  lack  of  the  "milk  of  human  kindness," 
made  him  extremely  unpopular  in  England,  where  he  was  en- 
dured only  as  a  defense  against  the  greater  evil  of  Stuart 
government,  and  in  recognition  of  the  great  work  he  was 
carrying  on  upon  the  (,'ontinent.  As  the  first  man  to  formu- 
late clearly  the  theory  of  the  '•  balance  of  power,"  he  greatly 
affected  the  subsequent  history  of  Europe. 


Tlie  (Jlorious  Revolution  of  KISS  made  the  monarch  again 
the  creature  of  Parliament  (as  at  the  beginning  of  the  Lancas- 
trian, Tudor,  and  Stuart  periods),  and  the  long-standing     459    ^^^ 
quarrel  over  the  limits  of  the  royal  prerogative  was  then  niary 

ended  by  several  acts  strictly  defining  the  monarch's  powers  on 
disputed  points.  The  judiciary  was  made  independent  and  the 
legislature  responsible.  Long  stei)s  were  taken  in  the  develoin 
ment  of  party  government  under  responsible  ministers  acting 
as  a  Cabinet,  or  connnittee  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Broadly  si>eaking,  the  dividing  line  Itetween  the  two  parties 
was  now  permanently  fixed  on  the  basis  of  agriculture  rs. 
manufactures,  county  r.s.  town.  To  the  landowning  Tories, 
peace,  fixity  of  customs,  submission  to  hereditary  rulers,  and 
unity  in  religion  .seemerl  indispensable;  to  the  enterprising 
city-bred  Whigs,  a  vigorous  foreign  policry,  juogress,  govern- 
ment by  the  will  of  the  ]»eople,  and  lilx^rty  of  wurship  seeujed 
equally  essential.  .\s  the  Kev«ilution  was  essentially  the  ex- 
pression of  the  latter  s]iirit,  it  tended  as  a  wlioie  tn  make 
England's  policy  a  Whig  policy  for  many  years.      In  especial, 


398 


RISE   OF   PARTY    GOVERNMENT 


by  giving  to  England  William  III.  of  Orange  as  her  ruler,  the 
Kevolution  brought  England  into  the  midst  of  Continental 
entanglements,  and  ended  her  brief  period  of  unnatural  alli- 
ance with  her  ancient  enemy,  France.  Thenceforth  she  be- 
came a  power  in  European  politics,  especially  because  of  her 
powerful  navy. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  State  some  specific  acts  of  the  Stuart  monarchs  Avhich  led  to 

topics  particular  provisions  of  the  Bill  of  Rights.     (2)   How  do  the  terms 

of  the  Mutiny  Act  reeuforce  the  provision  in  the  Bill  of  Rights 
regarding  a  standing  army  ?  (3)  Compare  the  treatment  of  clan 
Macdonald  by  the  Master  of  Stair  with  that  of  the  garrison  of  Wex- 
ford-by  Cromwell  (see  §  384).  (4)  In  what  ways  may  a  national 
debt  tend  to  the  stability  of  a  government  ?  (5)  What  light  does 
the  organization  of  the  Bank  of  England  throw  on  the  financial 
conditions  in  England  in  1694?  (0)  Is  the  membership  of  the 
British  Parliament  ever  entirely  renewed  ?  Compare  its  constitu- 
tion in  this  respect  with  that  of  the  American  Congress.  (7)  With 
the  aid  of  the  tables  on  pages  127  and  228,  show  that  Parliament  did 
not  depart  from  ancient  precedents  in  making  William  III.  of  Orange 
king  of  England.  (8)  Point  out  what  events  a;nd  present  condi- 
tions prompted  the  several  provisions  of  the  Acts  of  Settlement. 
(9)  Was  there  any  good  reason  why  the  debates  in  Pariiament 
should  not  be  printed  ?  (10)  Trace  the  blood  relationship  between 
James  II.  and  Louis  XIV. 
Search  (11)  The  story  of   Glencoe.     (12)  Dutchmen  who  were  made 

topics  .     pggj.g  Qf  England  by  William  III.     (13)  Admiral  Russell  and  the 

battle  of  La  Hogue.  (14)  The  Bank  of  England  and  the  two 
United  States  Banks.  (15)  The  Darien  expeditions  of  1698-1699. 
(16)  Macaulay's  estimate  of  William  III.  (17)  Incidents  of  the 
war  in  America,  1689-1697.  (18)  Character  of  Queen  Anne. 
(19)  Contemporary  opinions  of  William  III.  (20)  A  list  of  Eng- 
lish statutes  expressing  the  liberty  of  the  subject. 


Geography 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  246,  280,  384.  38') ;  (iardiner,  S'tudent's  Atlas,  maps 
35-38  ;  Poole,  IlistnrirnI  Atlas,  map  xxviii.  ;  Reich,  New  Students'' 
Atlas,  maps  28,  29. 


WILLIAM    UL 


:l!»0 


Brijilit.  Ilisliin/  nf  Etxjhtmh  HI.  805-J<74  ;  Gardiiitr,  StmhiiVa  Secondary 
imtnnj,  clis.  xlii.  xliii.  ;  Hansom.',  Ath-<mred  llistnnj,  (!07-7()4  ;  authorities 
Green,  Sfmrt  Ilistorif,  r»84-7t)7,  —  Ilistunj  nf  tin-  Eiii/lixli  People, 
bk.  viii.  cli.  lii.  ;  MtmlajLine,  Ehtupntu  of  Onislitutioual  Jlistori/, 
140-15(1  ;  rowell  and  Tout,  llii-tori/  if  EmjlumU  bk.  viii.  cb.  i.  ; 
Macaulay.  Ilistnnj  of  EmjlnmU  cbs.  xi.-xxv.  ;  Brewer,  StudinCs 
Ilnnv.  oil.  xxvii.  ;  Jenks,  PnrWimenUinj  EiKjlaiid,  ch.  iii.  ;  Traill, 
Wmidin  III.;  La\vles.s,  Irchimh  174-UH5;  Morri.s,  Ireland,  1V>4- 
1S6S,  174-1(H) ;  McCartliy.  Oi<tliiies  of  Iriah  Ilistorif,  cb.  vi. ; 
Torrens.  Ilistnry  of  Cohinets,  I.  ch.  i.  ;  Kawson.  Tirentij  Famous 
Xnral  Battles,  cb.  vii. ;  Houliedu'e,  Poptihtr  Proi/ress,  cli.  iii.  ; 
Taswell-Langniead,  Constitutional  Ilistonj.  102-187,  54.;-501  , 
Traill,  Social  En'jlaml,  cb.  xvi.  ;  Elliott,  Life  of  Godolphin ; 
May.  Constitutional  History,  ch.  viii.  See  New  England  History 
Teachers'  Association,  Syllalnts,  i'u. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  2."">-24m  ;  Colby,  Sources 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  8:3-85  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
no.  1U2  ;  Elill,  Liherty  Documents,  chs.  ix.  x.  ;  llendei-son,  Side 
Lifjhts,  192-214  ;  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History, 
nos.  12;].  124  ;  Figgis.  EmjUsh  History  from  Orifjinal  Sources, 
pt.  ii.  0<t-l;;2  ;  Evelyn.  Diary  (1088-1702);  Rurnet,  History  of 
My  Own  Time;  Sir  William  Temple.  Memoirs;  Luttrell,  Brief 
Jielation,  II. -IV. 

Bates  and  ( 'Oman,  Emjlish  Ilistnry  t<>},}  l,y  Enylish  Poets, -IX^'t- 
351;  Ilenty,  The  Ornnye  and  the  dreen  :  Cmcketf.  Lorhinvar  ; 
Marshall.  Kensinyton  Palace;  guiller-Coucb,  The  nine  Pacilions; 
Weyman,  Shreirislatry. 


lUustrativi 
works 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

WHIGS   VERSUS   TORIES    (1702-1715) 

Queen      Anne,     the 

younger     daughter     of 

.„«    «,  James  II.,  was  a 

460    Char- 
acter of  very  dull,  very  ob- 
QueenAnne    ^^^^^^^^^   ^^t    very 

well-meaning       person. 
By  birth  and  education 
a  Tory,  and  an  ardent 
church  worn  an,  she  was 
never  in  sympathy  with 
the    measures    of    the 
Whig   ministers   whom 
she  had  to  accept  dur- 
ing a  part  of  her  reign, 
and  absolutely  refused 
to  listen  to  their  argu- 
ments for  religious  tol- 
eration.    She  made  the 
mistake  of  letting  per- 
sonal   friendship    influ- 
ence her  official  action, 
but  fortunately  the  wis- 
dom   of    her    advisers 
saved   her  from    many 
grave  errors.     In  her  reign  two  forms  of  the  prerogative 
applied  for  the  last  time :  (1)  the  last  veto  by  a  monarch 

400 


Statue  of  Queen  Annk,  beforj 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
England,  France,  Ireland,  and  Ameri 
at  her  feet. 


were 
of  a 


WllKiS    VERSrS   TOUIKS    (ITOi'-lTl'.)  401 

hill  accepted  liy  Iw'tli  houses  (1707);  and  (L')  tlie  last  exercise 
of  control  over  Parliament  hy  the  creation  of  enough  lords  to 
change  tlie  party  majority  in  the  ujtper  house  (1711).  With 
the  two  greatest  movements  (d'  her  reign,  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  and  the  revival  of  English  letters,  she 
had  no  special  connection  or  sym])athy. 

Anne  selected  as  contidential  adviser  her  girlhood  friend, 
S;nali  -lenuiiigs,  now  married  to  John  ("liurchill.  Earl  of 
Marlborough.  The  countess,  a  woman  of  brilliant  in-  451.  Anne's 
tellect  but  violent  temper,  was  given  highly  i)aid  posi-  advisers 
tions  at  eourt,  while  her  husband,  the  greatest  general  of 
the  age,  was  made  andnissador  to  Holland  and  commander 
in  chief  of  the  English  army.  For  some  years  Marlborough 
was  i>raetically  ruler  of  England,  through  the  influence  of  his 
wife  over  the  queen,  and  through  his  own  influeme  over 
his  son-in-law  Godoli»hin,  the  Lord  High  Treasurer.  Both 
Marlborough  and  (iodolphin  Ijegau  their  career  as  Tories; 
but  as  their  interests  were  Iwund  uj)  in  the  success  of  the 
Spanish  Suecession  War  (a  Whig  war),  they  soon  became 
the  acknowledged  leaders  of  the  Whig  party. 

.Vt  .Vnne's  accession,  in  .March.  17(>L'.  the  War  of  the  Span- 
ish Succession  had  already  begun,  and  the  Karl  of  Marl- 
borough was  in  command  of  both  the  English  and  the      452    War 

Dutch    arnnes    in    the    Netherlands.      The   members   of   of  the  Span 

ish  Suc- 
tlie  (Jrand   .Vlliance  had  a  threefold  task  to  pj'rforni  in  cession 

Europe:  ( 1  )  in  Spain,  their  object  was  to  make  Charles.  '^'^^  ^' 
Archduke  of  Austria,  king  at  Madrid;  (2)  in  Italy,  they 
sought  to  compter  the  Spanish  |>rovinces  of  Naples,  Sicily,  and 
Milan;  ('.i)  on  the  Khine,  tln'y  had  to  recover  the  Sjtanish 
Netherlands,  which  had  U'en  seized  by  Louis,  to  defend  Hol- 
land, and.  if  possible,  to  strike  a  series  of  blows  at  the  heart 
of  France,  iising  (lermany  as  a  base  of  operations.  Outside  of 
Europe,  the  sea  powers  had  tin-  task  of  st-i/in,'  I'rench  and 
Spanish  eoloni;d  pos.sessions. 


402 


RISE   OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENt 


Mai'lhovoiigli  first  sought  to  render  the  Dutch  frontier  safe 

from  attack.     A  series  of  campaigns  in  1702  and  3  703  put  him 

463.  The       in  possession  of   five  fortresses  which    commanded   the 

'^^^^^n^^^     routes  from  France   into  Holland,  and    the    proud   and 

of  1702- 

1704  gratified   Anne   made   him    Duke    of   Marlborough.     In 

1704  Louis  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria, 
intending  to  invade  Austria.  Marlborough  shrewdly  deter- 
mined to  strike  a  blow  before  Louis  was  ready.     Advancing 


N     0     R     T 


The  Spanish  Netherlands  about  1700. 

up  the  Rhine  valley  into  Bavaria,  he  united  his  forces  with 
those  of  the  German  allies,  and  joined  battle  with  the  French 
near  the  village  of  Blenheim,  where  for  the  first  time  he  re- 
vealed his  consummate  ability  as  a  tactician  and  a  general. 
The  French  were  utterly  routed,  and  the  English  nation  by 
vote  of  Parliament  bestowed  upon  Marlborough  the  old  royal 
manor  of  Woodstock,  upon  which  was  erected  at  public 
expense  the  magnificent  palace  of  Blenheim. 


wiiics  vr.ijsrs   tokiks  (ito^-iti".) 


403 


5  *.  i  "i 

I:'   T: 


liid 


1 1 1 1    I 


.5    ) 

if* 


Ulknhk.im  (.'Asi  l.i;,  W  (.iodstock. 
Presented  by  tlie  governuieiit  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 

Throughout  the  seventeenth  century  England  had  been 
steadily  laying  the  foundations  of  a  great  colonial  em])ir(\ 
with  its  necessary  accompaniment,  a  great  mercantile  464  The 
marine  and  a  navy.  Year  by  year  she  absorbed  more  Eng^ian^s 
ami  more  of  tin-  fisheries  and  the  carrying  trade  of  the  sea  power 
world,  and  planted  continually  new  trading  posts  and  colonit-s 
in  remote  lands.  Madras,  l>ond)ay,  and  Calcutta;  Gandjia  and 
St.  Helena  (map,  p.  iUo) ;  thirteen  colonies  on  the  continent 
of  North  America;  Barbados,  the  Leeward  Islands,  and  the 
Windward  Islands;  Kupert's  Land,  on  Hudson  15ay  ;  —  tjiese 
form  but  a  part  of  the  long  roll  of  acquisitions.  Through  the 
restrictions  of  the  navigation  acts  the  products  of  all  these 
pos.sessions  had  to  flow  through  English  channels  of  triule ; 
this  monoiioly  had  h-d  to  shipbuilding  on  a  vast  scale,  and 
gave  employment  to  thousands  of  nifrdiants,  artisans,  and 
sailors. 

Hence  wht-n  tin-  Urvolution  of  I«;S.S  piU  tin*  political  powt-r 
into  thf  hands  of  the  Whigs.  England's  colonial  trade  lu'came 
the  controlling  motive  in  their  foreign  policy.  The  War  of 
the  Spanish  Siucvssion  was  important  to  England  largely 
because  it  enabled  her  to  seize  commanding  naval  stations  like 


404  KISE   OF   I'AKTY   GOVERNMENT 

Gibraltar  (1704)  and  Minorca  (1708),  and  valuable  colonies  like 
Xova  Scotia  (1711).  The  iirst-named  stronghold  was  of  vast 
importance  to  England's  sea  power,  because  it  commanded  the 
entrance  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  because  it  was  a  base  from 
which  to  attack  Spain.  The  annexation  of  Nova  Scotia  ex- 
tended England's  colonial  empire  at  the  expense  of  her  chief 
rival. 

After   1704   the   Continental  war  was  eventful  but  barren 
of  results.     Prince  Eugene  of    Savoy  won  most  of   Italy  for 

.„^    „  the  Emperor.     Marlborough,  in  the  Low  Countries,  won 

465.   Tory  ^  *   ' 

reaction         repeated   victories,  —  at    Ramillies,    Oudeuarde,  Malpla- 

(1708-1709)  q^^g^^  Tournay,  Mons,  —  forcing  his  way  doggedly  toward 
the  French  capital.  Louis  sued  repeatedly  but  lui successfully 
for  peace,  for  the  allies  were  bent  on  his  ruin.  Meanwhile  in 
England  the  Tories  were  creating  a  sentiment  against  Marl- 
borough and  the  "  AVhig  war."  It  was  said  that  he  was 
getting  rich  out  of  army  contracts,  and  that  he  was  prolong- 
ing the  war  merely  to  win  glory.  The  queen  grew  tired  of 
being  ruled  and  scolded  by  Sarah  Jennings,  and  took  to 
herself  another  favorite,  Mrs.  Masham.  , 

The  opportunity  of  the  Tories  came  when  the  Whig  party 

exposed  itself  to  odium  and  ridicule  by  making  a  foolish  at- 

tack  upon  Dr.  Sacheverell,  a  High  Church  divine,  who 

the  Whigs      preached  certain  sermons  against  resistance  to  monarchs. 

^        ^  His  impeachment,  shortly  before  the  elections  of  1710, 

caused  the  return  of  a  Tory  majority  to  the  lower  house. 
Kobert  Harley,  the  cousin  of  Mrs.  Masham,  was  made  chan- 
cellor, and  Henry  St.  John,  better  known  by  his  later  title  of 
Lord  Bolingbroke,  became  foreign  secretary.  The  next  year, 
the  new  ministers  caused  Marlborough  to  be  dismissed  from 
all  his  offices  on  the  charge  of  dishonesty  and  malfeasance  in 
office ;  and  as  there  Avas  still  in  the  House  of  Lords  a  small 
majority  that  favored  the  war,  Harley  induced  the  queen  to 
make  a  permanent  Tory  majority  by  creating  twelve  new  peers. 


\viii<;s  \  r.Ksi  s    nuMKs  (iTdj-iTio)  40') 

The  in'w  iiiiiiislns  were  so  anxious  to  oud  the  war  that  thvy 

l»ei,MU    a   (liscn'ilitahl**    lu'ijotiatioii    with     Louis    for    a    peacf 

diri'ctly    hetwi't'ii     Eiit,'laiul    and     France,    witliout    the  ^^^^^ 

knowledge  of  the  other  allies.     Uut  all  jiarties  were  now      of  the  war 

1 17 13i 
ready    for    i)eaee ;    for   by    several    unexi»eeted    deaths 

Charles  of  Austria  became  ruler  of  all  the  Hapsburg  domains. 
and  prospective  Emperor;  so  that  to  place  him  upfni  the 
throne  of  Spain  would  be  to  destroy  that  very  balance  of  power 
for  which  the  war  was  waged.  In  the  great  treaty  of  Utrecht 
(March,  171.*->),  Louis  XIV.  formally  recognized  the  legitimacy 
of  the  rule  of  Queen  Anne  and  of  her  Protestant  successors  as 
prescribed  by  law,  '-on  the  faith,  word,  and  honor  of  a  king," 
and  agreed  to  expel  from  France  James's  son  (called  by  the 
legitimists  "James  the  Third,'"  and  by  the  Whigs  "the  Pre- 
tender"), and  to  give  him  no  further  assistance.  England 
agreed  that  Philip  of  Anjou  should  become  king  of  Spain,  on 
condition  that  he  abjured  all  claims  upon  the  French  throne 
for  himself  and  his  heirs  forever. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  clauses  of  the  treaty  related  to 
the    colonies.     England   kept   Gibraltar,  Minorca,    and   Nova 
Scotia,  and  was  confirmed  in  possession  of  Newfoundland      468    Eng- 
and  the  vast  fur-bearing  territory  draining  into  Hudson     ^fj-om^the 
Pay  (a  region  which  till  now  had  been  in  dispute  be-  war 

tween  English  and  French  traders).  France  retained  the 
right  to  fish  in  the  waters  of  Newfoundland  and  tt)  land  ujjon 
and  occupy  its  western  shf)res  for  the  purpose  of  drying  and 
curing  these  fish.  England  gained  treaties  of  commerce  with 
both  France  and  Spain,  and  was  granted  the  so-called  Asioitfo, 
or  monopoly  of  the  business  of  furnishing  slaves  for  the  Span- 
ish mines  and  plantations  in  America.  l'>y  the  terms  of  the 
contract  P^ngland  was  to  supply  4S(K)  negroes  yearly  to  the 
Spanish  colonies  for  thirty  years. 

During  this  war  (K-curred  the  long-delayed  union   of  Scot- 
land  and   Knghuul  (to  whieh    Wales  was  already  united)  into 


406 


RISE    OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENT 


the  single  kingdom  of  Great  Britain.     Since  the  accession  of 
James  I.  (1003)  there  had  been  only  a  '•  personal  union,"  the 
469    Union    ^^^'^  states  having  the  same  monarch,  l)ut  each  having 
of  England     a  separate  legislature  and  being  ruled  under  its  own  con- 
land  °°  stitutional  forms ;    but  in  1704  the  Scottish  Parliament 
(.May,  1707)    passed  an  "Act  of  Security,"'  looking  to  the  designation 
of  some  monarch  other  than  the  sovereign  of  England,  upon 
the  death  of  Anne ;  and  thus  they  forced  the  English  to  draw 

up  a  scheme  of  union. 

Rather  than  have 
Scotland    again   wholly 
independent,    the    Eng- 
lish  made  most  liberal 
concessions:  they  agreed 
that     Scotland     should 
share  the  burden  of  tax- 
ation only  in  proportion 
to    her    wealth    (which 
Avas  about  one  fortieth 
that  of  the  rest  pf  the 
new  kingdom)  ;  but  that 
she   should  be  entitled 
to  one  twelfth  of  the  total  number  of  representatives  in  the 
united  Parliament.    The  Scottish  peers  were  to  elect  sixteen  of 
their  number  annually  to  represent  them  in  the  upper  house, 
and  forty-five  seats  were  assigned  to  Scotland  in  the  House  of 
Commons  —  thirty  for  the  shires  and  fifteen  for  the  important 
towns.     The  established  church  of  Scotland  preserved  its  in- 
dependent constitution  and  organization.     The  local  system  of 
law  and  justice  was  retained,  but  the  Euglish  system  of  weights, 
measures,    and   coinage   was   extended   over  Scotland  (1T07), 
which  thenceforth  was  oflicially  styled  "  North  P>ritain." 

In  1714,  the  year  after   the   treaty  of  Utrecht,  Anne    fell 
seriously  ill.     Bolingbroke  was  already  planning  for  the  resto- 


The  Arms  of  Scotland. 
Before  the  union  witli  England  in  1707 


WHIGS   VERSUS   TORIES    (1702-1715) 


401 


ration  of  the  exiled  Stuarts,  and  the  Jacobites  hastened  to 
sninnion  tlie  Pretender  to  Eughmd  ;  but  Anne's  illness  reaclu'd 
a  critical  stage  in  a  single  day.     Her  last  official  act  was   470.  Acces- 
the  appointment  of  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury  —  a  Tory,  but        _  ^^°^  °} 
not  a  Jacobite  —  as  Lord  High  Treasurer.     Immediately  U714> 

upon  her  death  (August  1,  1714)  he  caused  the  Privy  Council 
and  Parliament  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  Anne's  heir,  accord- 
ing to  the  Act  of  Settlement ;  and 
issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting 
the  Pretender  from  landing  in 
Great  Britain.  (Jeorge  Louis,  Elec- 
tor of  Hanover,  was  at  once  pro- 
claimed king  of  Great  Britain, 
which  nuide  any  action  of  the 
Jacobites  in  favor  of  the  Pretender 
technical  treason.  The  conspira- 
tors were  taken  too  much  by  sur- 
prise to  resort  to  force ;  so  that 
although  it  took  five  days  for  the 
news  to  reach  the  new  monarch 
in  Hanover,  and  seven  weeks  for 
him  to  reach  England,  he  found 
the  country  quite  ready  to  accept 
him  upon  his  arrival  there. 

The  new  king,  George   L,  was 
a  man   fifty-four  years   old,  Ger- 
man  born,    Gernuiu    in   training,   German   in   his   phlegmatic 
character.     He  was  experienced  as  a  soldier  and  a  ruler.   471    Effect 
but  had  no  liberal  education,  coidd   not  speak   a  word      chanee  of 
of   English,  had    no   sympathy    with  English  ideas   or         dynasty 
customs,  and  showed  no  desire   to   become  in   any   sense  an 
Englishman.     His  sole  political  programme  was  to  place  him- 

*  Translation:  Restore,  therefore,  him  to  whom  it  beloiifrs. 
walker's  knt,.   hist. — 25 


Jacobitk  Mkdal  ok  1708. 
"  Reddite  i{;itur  cujus  est."  ' 


408  RISE   OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENT 

self  in  the  hands  of  those  Whig  statesmen  who  had  procured 
his  succession  to  the  throne,  and  under  their  guidance  to  per- 
form the  routine  duties  of  a  monarch. 

This  state  of  affairs  served  to  fix  once  and  for  all  upon  Eng- 
land the  habit  of  "  cabinet  government "  —  that  is,  government 
by  a  body  of  ministers,  all  members  of  the  same  party,  who  (1) 
act  in  concert  to  bring  about  certain  political  ends ;  (2)  decide 
upon  and  draft  all  important  legislation  ;  and  (3)  control  the 
various  executive  departments  of  the  government.  Since 
George  was  unable  to  preside  at  the  meetings  of  his  council  or 
even  to  understand  the  bills  considered  at  those  meetings,  the 
ministers  were  obliged  to  look  to  one  of  their  own  number  for 
leadership ;  and  before  the  end  of  his  reign  it  had  become  an 
established  principle  that  the  Cabinet  must  act  as  a  unit  on  every 
party  question,  under  the  direction  of  its  "  prime  "  minister. 

Immediately  upon  the  accession  of  George  I.,  the  victorious 
Whigs  attempted  to  punish  the  Tory  leaders  who  had  negoti- 
ated  the    treaty  of  Utrecht.      Bolingbroke  was  obliged 

472    Jaco- 

bite  upris-     to  flee  to  the  Continent,  whence  he  plotted  a  Jacobite 

ing  (1715)  ^^pi-iging  in  behalf  of  the  Pretender.  The  conspiracy  was 
poorly  planned  and  poorly  executed.  Premature  uprisings  in 
Scotland  under  the  Earl  of  Mar,  and  in  Northumberland  under 
the  Earl  of  Derwentwater,  were  easily  crushed,  so  that  when 
the  Pretender  landed  in  Scotland  (September  22,  1715),  no 
troops  were  available  for  the  support  of  his  cause ;  and  after 
six  months  of  useless  struggles  to  raise  an  army,  he  returned 
to  Prance. 

The  Whigs,  confident  in  their  strength,  treated  the  rebels 
Avith  great  leniency,  causing  only  twenty-five  persons  to  be 

473.  Confir-  executed  for  treason;  but  they  immediately  set  to  work 

mation  of       ^^         measures  to  strengthen  still  further  their  political 

Whig  1  '-' 

control  power.     One  of  these,  the  Septennial  Bill  (1716),  changed 

the  time  limit  of  the  existing  and  all  subsequent  Parliaments 

from  three  to  seven  years.     Another,  the  Peerage  Bill  (1719), 


WHIGS   VERSUS   TORIES    (1T()J-1715) 


409 


provided  that  the  monarch  should  not  add  more  than  six  to 
the  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  lords  then  existing  —  an 
act  designed  to  keep  the  monarch  from  again  changing  the 
party  majority  in  the  upper  house  by  creating  new  peers 
(§  4()6);  fortunately  it  failed  to  pass,  because  even  the  Whigs 
could  not  agree  upon  it. 

The  strife  of  parties  which  followed  the  Revolution  helped 
to  develop  prose  literature.     Everybody  engaged  in  criticism  of 
men,  of  measures,  of  manners,  of  morals ;  but  criticism,    474.  Prose 
to  be  etfective,  must  be  expressed  in  terse,  pithy,  forcefvd  ^^of  the 

language.     Thus  the  political  pamphlet,  the  periodical  period 

essay,  the  lamjwon,  all  helped  to  transform  Englisli  writ- 
ings from  the  long,  cumbrous, 
Latinized  style  used  by  ^lil- 
ton  and  his  contemporaries 
to  the  more  simple,  direct, 
and  homely  style  in  use  to- 
day. The  chief  agents  in  this 
reform  were  Defoe,  Steele, 
Addi.son,  and  Swift.  Defoe's 
Robinson  Crusoe  was  one  of 
the  earliest  stories  of  adven- 
ture told  in  simple  language 
and  dealing  with  reali.stic  in- 
cidents. Steele  and  Addison, 
in  ])eriodicals  called  the  7'«^ 
Ipr,  the  Spectator,  etc.,  pul>- 
lislied  more  than  a  thousand 

brief  essays  marked  by  clear-  ^'-'^  Steele's  Guardian,  No.  78. 

ness,  ease,  and  charm  of  expression.  Swift. wa.s  the  author  of 
niimerous  furccful  pamphlets,  as  well  as  of  several  satires  on 
the  political  and  .social  life  of  the  time.  The  most  notable 
of  these  is  Gnlliirrs  Traceh,  in  which  human  actions  are  made 
to  seem  ignoble  when  performed  by  dwarfs  and  giants. 


1.1    I  1  Ki;    I'.oX    AT    lil  Tli'N  S 
CoKKEK    HorsE. 


410  RISE   OF   PARTY   GOVERNMENT 

The  poetry  of  the  period  had  the  same  qualities  as  the 
prose,  and  dealt  with  the  same  practical   subjects.     From  a 

study   of  classical  models   a   set   of    critical   principles 
475.  Poetry  ■,,.■,-,  -^  4.  j  ^ 

of  the  was  evolved,  and  all  verse  writers  were  expected  to  con- 

period  £q^.j^-j  ^q  ^j-^g  standard  thus  set,  in  meter,  rhyme,  and  dic- 

tion. Almost  the  only  verse  form  used  was  the  ten-syllabled 
rhymed  couplet ;  and,  with  its  aid,  neatness  of  expression  was 
raised  to  a  fine  art  under  Alexander  Pope  (1688-1744),  the 
acknowledged  head  of  the  new  school.  Pope's  Rajie  of  the 
Lock  is  a  satire  on  high  society,  his  Essay  on  Man  a  philo- 
sophical treatise  in  rhyme,  his  Essay  on  Criticism  a  versified 
study  of  the  rules  of  expression,  his  Dunciad  an  extended 
lampoon. 

From  the  labors  of  these  men  of  genius  —  both  poets  and 
prose  writers  —  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  has  received  its  title 
of  the  "Augustan  Age  of  English  Literature." 


From   her  predecessor  Anne  inherited  a  war  with  France 

which  lasted  through  most  of  her  reign.     The  genius  of  Marl- 

476    Sum-     borough  made  this  war  a  series  of  triumphs  for  England, 

mary  and  enabled  her  at  its  close  to  exchange  conquered  posts 

near   France  for   more  important    outlying  territories.      The 

acquisition  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  Hudson  Bay  country  was 

a  step  toward   the   later   acquisition  of   Canada;    with 
Muhan,  In-  ^  p     ,       ,  r    t 

Awnce  of       Gibraltar  came  the  control  of  the  Mediterranean  route 

the  Sea  ^^^  ^1^^  East;    the   Asiento  was    the   opening   wedge   to 

Poiver  upon  '  ... 

History,         freedom  of  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America. 

^^^  "  Before  that  war  England  was  one  of  the  sea  powers  ; 

after  it  she  was  the  sea  power,  without  any  second." 

This  war  was  a  Whig  war,  a  Protestant  war,  waged  against 

Louis  XIV.,  the  supporter  of  Catholicism  and  of  Jacobitism. 

Therefore  party  strife  ran  high,  and  treasonable  plots  abounded. 

To  prevent  Scotland  from  returning  to  her  old  alliance  with 

France,  it  was    necessary  to   annex    her   on   most    favorable 


WllKiS    VKRSUS  TORIES    (1702-171".) 


411 


terms.  The  principles  of  Prot- 
estantism, of  independence 
from  foreign  control,  of  law 
and  order,  tinally  prevailed 
in  Great  Britain.  At  the 
death  of  Anne,  three  changes 
came  about:  (1)  The  crown 
of  Great  Britain  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Hanoverian  line. 
(2)  This  change  marked  vir- 
tually the  end  of  a  century 
of  strife  between  king  and 
people,  resulting  in  the  vest- 
ing of  the  government  of 
(heat  Britain  in  the  two 
liuuses  of  Parliament.  (3)  In 
order  to  keep  the  parliamen- 
tary government  working,  the 


Costume  of  a  Bkau,  1710. 
From  a  couteiiiixjrary  priut. 


hitherto  unorganized  Privy  Council  was  transformed   into  a 
modern  Cabinet  under  the  direction  of  a  Prime  Minister. 


TOPICS 

(1)  How  many  of  Anne's  predcces.sors  made  the  mistake  of  beins  Suggestive 
guided  too  much  by  favorites  ?  (2)  W;is  it  fortunate  that  Anne's  *°P'<^8 
mo.st  intimate  frieml  was  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough  ?  (3)  Why 
do  monarchs  n<>  lon^'er  veto  bills  passed  by  Parliament  ?  (4)  What 
is  meant  by  the  phrase  "Spani.sh  Hourbon  monarchs"  ?  (.j)  Why 
was  it  hard  to  arrantre  for  the  union  of  Scotland  with  England  ? 
(<i)  What  previous  instances  have  we  of  Endand's  being  joined 
with  other  slates  in  a  "personal  union  "  ?  (7)  Would  the  national 
debt  of  about  fr.0.n(»0.000  incurred  in  the  War  of  tiie  Spanisli  Suc- 
cession favor  or  hinder  the  plans  of  Jacobites?  (8)  Why  has  the 
prime  minister  generally  been  either  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs,  or  First  Lonl  of  the  Treasury?  (It)  Why  should  .Addison, 
Steele,  and  Swift  all  have  been  appointed  to  iniblic  otlice? 
(10)  Was  Marlborough  patriotic? 


412 


RISE  OF  PARTY  GOVERNMENT 


Search 
topics 


(11)  Addison's  treatment  of  the  battle  of  Blenheim  in  his  poem 
The  Campaign.  (12)  Soutliey's  treatment  of  the  same  battle  in 
his  poem  After  Blenheim.  (13)  A  description  of  the  fortress  of 
Gibraltar.  (14)  A  discussion  of  the  earlier  and  the  present 
value  of  Gibraltar  to  England.  (15)  Thackeray's  account  of  the 
Earl  of  Marlborough  in  Henry  Esmond.  (16)  Agitation  about  the 
rights  of  the  French  on  the  west  shore  of  Newfoundland  in  the  last 
quarter  century.  (17)  Quarrel  of  Queen  Anne  and  the  Duchess 
of  Marlborough. 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  24G,  385,  402,  545 ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  maps 
39-42  ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas.,  map  Ixxxvi.;  Reich,  New  Students' 
Atlas,  maps  30-32. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  III.  875-948  ;  Gardiner,  StudenVs 
History,  676-712  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  705-746  ;  Green, 
Short  History,  707-728,  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  viii. 
ch.  iii. ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional  History,  ch.  xi. ; 
Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England,  737-765;  Brewer,  Student's 
Hume,  ch.  xxviii.  ;  Mahon,  History  of  England,  chs.  i.-x.  ;  Morris, 
The  Age  of  Anne  ;  Burton,  The  Beign  of  Queen  Anne,  I.  II.  ; 
McCarthy,  The  Beign  of  Queen  Aiine ;  L.  Creighton,  Tlie  Duke 
of  Marlhorough  ;  Wolseley,  Life  of  Marlborough ;  Jenks,  Par- 
liamentary England,  ch.  iv. ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional 
History,  572-576  ;  Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  I.  chs.  i.  ii. ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xlv.-xlvii. ;  Mackinnon, 
The  Union  of  England  and  Scotland,  chs.  iii.-xi.  ;  Oliphant,  His- 
torical Characters  of  the  Beign  of  Queen  Anne ;  Lyall,  Bise  of 
British  Dominion  in  India,  ch.  iii. ;  Routledge,  Popular  Progress, 
ch.  iii.  ;  Seeley,  TJie  Groicth  of  British  Policy  ;  Torrens,  History  of 
Cabinets,  I.  chs.  ii.-vi.  ;  Traill,  Social  England,  ch.  xvi.  See  New 
England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  257-258. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  244-248  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  86,  87  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
no.  115 ;  Henderson,  Side  Lights,  214-242  ;  Burnet,  History  of 
My  Own  Time ;  Saintsbury,  Political  Pamphlets ;  Figgis,  English 
History  from  Original  Sources,  pt.  ii.  134-197;  Swift,  Last  Four 
Years  of  the  Queen,  —  Conduct  of  the  Allies;  Bolingbroke,  Letters 
and  Correspondence  ;    4ddison  and  Steele,  Tatler,  Spectator. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  352- 
355 ;  Hardy,  Tlie  Cornet  of  Horse  ;  Scott,  The  Black  Dwarf,  — 
Bob  Boy  ;  Thackeray,  Henry  Esmond. 


ClIAl'TKK    XXIX. 

WHK;    KKl.l.MKS    OF    WALl'OLE    AND    PITT  (1721-17(;i) 

Under  George  I.,  ami  during  a  part  of  the  reign  of  George 

11.,  the  real  ruler  of  Great  Britain  was  Robert  Walpole,  the 

younger  son  of  a  country  gentleman  in  Norfolk.     After  4^^.  Robert 

tlie  ordinary  education  of  the  English  gentleman,  Walpole        Walpoie 
,  ,.     ,■  ,  P  n      TT  (1676-1745) 

entered  larliament  when  twenty-iour  years  old.    He  was 

a  man  of  solid  rather  tlian  oi  brilliant  abilities  :  he  could  boast 

of  no  elaborate  learning,  no  refined  tastes,  no  elevated  theory 

of  statesmanship,  no  superior  standanl  of  morals ;  but  he  was 

eminently    practical,    and   sincerely    anxious   to   promote    the 

general  welfare  of  the  country.     He  attached  himself  to  the 

Whig  party,  worked  zealously  in  its  interest,  and  was  rewarded 

with  certain  minor  offices  in  the  departments  of  War  and  of  the 

Navy.      In   171<»  he  shared   the  downfall  of  the  Whigs,  and 

with  his  colleagues    returned   to   power   at   the   accession    of 

George  I.,  in  1714.     V>y  his  o[)position  to  the  Peerage  Bill  he 

lost  standiTig  witli  his    party,  but   accident   soon   made    him 

indispensable  to  the  Wliigs. 

In  1711  the  new  South  Sea  Company  undertook  to  get  from 

the  government  a  monopoly  of    British    trade  in  the   I'acitie. 

In  1719  it  offered  to  pay  off  a  large  part  of  the  outstanding       478    The 

debt  of  the  British  government,  witli  Soutli  Sea  stoc^k,         "'subble 

thus  taking  the  place  of  the  Bank  of  p]ngland  as  the  prin-  (17l9j 

cipal   creditor   of   the  government.     When  the  leading  Whig 

ministers  gave    their   support,  people  supposed    the  company 

would  be  necessarily  j)rt»fital)le,  and  its  stock  rose  to  ten  times 

its  face  vaUu;  in  a  very  short  time.     Then   followed  a  panic; 

413 


414  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

the  shares  fell  from  £1000  to  £175  in  a  month ;  and  the  indig- 
nant investors  turned  on  the  statesmen  who  had  misled  them. 
Walpole,  whose  wisdom  in  public  finance  led  him  to  foresee 
this  crisis,  now  came  forward  with  measures  for  restoring 
public  credit,  was  made  prime  minister,  and  remained  the 
leader  of  the  Whig  party  for  more  than  twenty  years. 

Walpole  chose  for  himself  the  positions  of  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  and  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  thus  keeping  in  his 

.-„    ^,  ,      own  hands  the  entire  control  of  the  finances  of  the  coun- 

479.  Wal- 

pole's  try.     Under  his  rule  the  national  debt  was  reduced  by 

P^^^^y  more  than  £8,000,000.     When  capital  was  abundant,  he 

borrowed  money  at  low  rates  of  interest,  and  used  it  to  pay  off 
debts  contracted  when  money  was  bringing  a  higher  interest; 
whenever  there  was  a  surplus  in  the  annu.al  revenue,  he  put  it 
aside  at  compound  interest,  as  a  "  sinking  fund  "  for  the  final 
payment  of  the  debt. 

Walpole's  political  policy  was  to  maintain  peace  until  the 
nation  should  recover  from  the  long  strain  of  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  and  until  the  Hanoverian  king  should  be 
firmly  seated.  Finding  that  Spain  was  plotting  to  recover  her 
lost  territories,  he  concluded  an  alliance  with  France  (now 
under  a  regency),  Holland,  and  Austria,  thus  making  peace 
inevitable.  He  expended  immense  sums  in  bribing  the 
representatives  of  foreign  powers,  out  of  w^hat  was  known  as 
the  "Secret  Service  Fund."  At  home,  too,  he  relied  largely 
upon  bribery  to  maintain  his  influence  over  the  Commons,  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  his  Whig  supporters  controlled  so  many 
parliamentary  boroughs  that  the  Opposition  party  remained  in 
a  hopeless  minority. 

George  II.,  who  succeeded  George  I.  in  1727,  was  as  thor- 

480    Wal-      ouglily  German  as  his   father  in  character  and   habits, 

pole's  ca-       l3^t  was  familiar  with  the  English  language,  and  took 

reer  under  .  , .  .  .       ,  i       t  t 

George  II.      more  immeduite  interest  in  the  government.     He  was  a 

(1727-1743)   hot-tempered  little  man,  a  soldier  by  training,  unculti- 


wiik;  kkcjimks  of  walpolk  and  I'lrr 


415 


vated,  but  very  conceited.  Although  he  disliked  Walpole,  he 
was  iuHucuced  by  his  wise  queen  ((,'aroline  of  Anspach)  to 
continue  the  great  minister  in  power. 

In  this  period,  however,  Walpole  steadily  lost  in  popularity, 
for  (^as  his  son  said  of  him)  '"he  loved  power  so  much  that  he 
could  endure  no  rival."  The  abler  Whigs  were  by  degrees 
driven  out  of  office  through  his  domineering  temper ;  some  of 
tliem  helped  to  form  a  new  Tory  party  muler  ]-?olingV)roke, 
the  old  Jacobite  leader,  and  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  who 
amused  himself  by  leading  a  parliamentary  clique  against  his 
father.  Others  built 
up  a  Whig  opposition 
party  known  as  the 
••  Patriots."  Walpole 
sneered  at  the  term, 
and  declared  that  he 
•cDuld  make  a  Patriot 
by  merely  refusing 
an  unreasonable  re- 
quest,'' but  the  op- 
i)osition    grew   dailv,     Walpole's  Excisk  nKvoiRiNo  thk  Laboreb, 

,  ,  r  TO    PRODUCE    RkVENCE. 

because      people      in  ^    .  ,      ,,„., 

*      '  Caricature  on  a  fan,  173'J. 

general    did    not   nn- 

dcrstand  either  his  financial  or  his  ixditical  poli(;y.  As  the 
»>r<linary  iuiport  duties  on  tobacco  ami  wine  were  systemati- 
cally evaded  by  smuggling,  Wali)ole  jjroposed  in  17.'5.*^  to  lay 
cxfiso  duties  on  the  manufacture  of  licjuors,  wliieli  would 
increase  the  revenue  without  seriously  increasing  the  burden 
upon  the  nation ;  but  the  bill  proved  so  unpopular  with  the 
ignorant  cla.sses  that  he  wa.s  obliged  to  abandon  it.  The  death 
of  Queen  (^aroline  (17.")7)  deprived  him  of  a  strong  champion 
at  court. 

Tn  preserving  ]»eae»'  and  fostering  trade,  Walpole  was  follow- 
ing the  spirit  of  the  times,  for  the  nation  was  eager  to  e.xtend 


416  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMriRE 

its  foreign  commerce.     The  colonies  planted  in  America  under 

the   Stuarts,  from  Maine  to  the  Carolinas,  were  doubling  in 

481.  Fric-     population  every   quarter  of   a   century;    English  mer- 

tionwith       chants    were    continually    breaking    through    the   trade 

Spam  over  ,  ./  o  o 

colonial         barriers   erected   by    Spain,   Holland,    and   France,   and 

trade  were  planting  trading  stations  both  in  the  far  East  and 

the  far  West.     The  foundation   of   the  American  colon}-  of 

Georgia  (1732),  which  encroached  on  Spanish  Florida,  showed 

the  "  forward  tendency  "  of  Great  Britain ;  while  the  persistent 

smuggling  of  goods  into  the  Spanish  American  colonies  showed 

the  determination  of   English   merchants   to   ignore   Spanish 

trade  laws.     The  Spaniards  were  thus  led  to  use  the  "  right  of 

search  "  of  British  vessels  on  the  high  seas ;  and  this  violation 

of  the  sovereign  rights  of  Great  Britain  brought  about  the  war 

which  caused  the  fall  of  Walpole. 

The  final  cause  of  the  war  gave  to  it  the  name  of  the  "  AVar 
of  Jenkins's  Ear."     In  1731  a  Spanish  officer  in  the  Gulf  of 

482.  "  War  jNIexico  boarded  a  smuggling  vessel  commanded  by  a 
0  en  ins  s  ggp^^g^j^^^  Captain  Jenkins,  and  after  a  most  insulting 
(1739-1740)  interview  caused  the  captain's  ear  to  be  cut  off,  bidding 

him  show  it  to  his  king  as  a  warning  of  what  other  English 
smugglers  might  expect.  In  1738  Jenkins  brought  his  ear  to 
England  in  a  tin  box,  and  told  his  story  to  a  committee  of 
Parliament.  The  tale  created  great  excitement  throughout 
England ;  the  hostility  of  Spain  steadily  increased ;  and  in 
October,  1739,  Walpole  was  obliged  to  declare  war.  Though 
he  had  struggled  desperately  to  avoid  war,  the  defeats  in  its 
early  stages  were  laid  to  his  charge ;  in  1743  he  found  him- 
self unable  to  command  a  majority  in  Parliament,  and  retired 
from  office.  He  received  a  pension  of  £4000  a  year  and 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Earl  of  Orford,  and  died  two 
years  later. 

In  1740  fleets  under  Admirals  Anson  and  Vernon  were  sent 
out  to  seize  Spanish  colonial   ports.     Anson    sailed   entirely 


Wllir,    l^KCIMKS    Ol'    \VM,1'<»I.K    AM)    IM  IT  417 

arouml  tlio  woiltl.  doiiiij;  ^Mt'iiL  liana  ti)  Spaiiisli  sliippinj;; 
hut  Venitui  faik'd  in  liis  attempts  to  gain  control  of  (."uba  or 
of  tlir  Isthmus  of  Panama.  For  the  rest,  the  fighting  con- 
sisted mainly  of  privateering  expeditions.  In  one  year  six 
hundred  prizes  were  taken,  and  tlie  Spanish  colonial  merchant 
Heet  was  swept  from  the  seas. 

A  year  and  a  day  after  the  declaration  of  war,  came  the 
death  of  the  Emperor,  Charles  VI.  of  Austria;  and  the  minor 
contest    was    at   once   merged    into   a    great   European      493    -y^^ar 

struet'le  known  as  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession.     °^  *^^  ^"s- 

*°  trian  Suc- 

Charles   had   induced   the   various   European   states    to  cession 

approve  a  document  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by    il'lO-lTiaj 

the  terms  of  which  liis  daughter  Maria  Theresa  was  to  inherit 

his     Austrian    (h)minions;    but    Prussia   (under    the    famous 

Frederick   the   Great),   Pavaria,  and  France  combined  to  rob 

the  queen  of  her  iiiheritancH.  (Ireat  Britain  alone  remaining 

Icyal  to  lier  word. 

Most  of  the  contest  whicli  followed  belongs  to  Continental 
rather  than  to  English  history ;  but  it  marks  an  important 
stage  in  the  long  fight  for  colonial  empire  between  France  and 
Creat  P»ritain.  These  two  powers  became  heads  of  great 
leagues:  Great  Ihitain  was  allied  with  Holland,  Sardinia, 
Au.stria,  and  Saxony;  France  was  supi)orted  by  I'russia.  Ba- 
varia, Spain,  and  Russia.  The  aim  of  England  and  Holland 
was  to  safeguard  their  commerce  and  colonies  l)y  holding  the 
supremacy  of  the  sea;  France  sought  to  build  uji  Prussia  and 
Bavaria  at  the  expense  of  the  ilaiisbuigs,  to  rol)  the  British 
uu)narch  of  his  Hanoverian  possessions,  and  to  conquer  the 
Netherlands. 

On  the  Continent  the  English  won  a  brilliant  victory  over 
the  French  at  Dettingen  (1743)  in  Germany,  and  suf-    ^^^    j^^^^ 
fered   two  as   signal   defeats,  one   at    Fontenoy    (174^))     ing  events 
while   defending   the    Austrian    Netherlands    against    a 
French  attack,  and  a  s.-cond  at  Lacffehl  (1717),  in  the  same 


418 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


region.  In  America,  the  fortress  of  Louisburg  on  Cape  Breton 
Island  was  captured  by  the  New  England  colonists  (1745). 
On  the  sea  the  weak  French  navy  was  practically  destroyed 
in  two  minor  combats  during  the  year  1747.  Though  the  next 
year  France  almost  secured  the  Netherland  territories  which 
had  been  the  goal  of  so 
many  contests,  Spain  and 
Russia  threatened  to  de- 
sert her;  she  was  losing 
ground  in  her  American 
colonial  possessions,  she 
was  on  the  verge  of  finan- 
cial collapse,  and  she  found 
herself  unable  to  seize  the 
long-coveted  prize.  She 
therefore  agreed  to  the 
treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748),  by  which  all  con- 
quests were  restored  in 
Europe  and  elsewhere. 

In  the  midst  of  this 
war  France  tried  to  dis- 
turb the  Hanoverian 
government  by  help- 
ing the  Jacobites. 
Old  Pretender  was 
so  intemperate  that  he 
was  unfit  for  an  active 
campaign,  but  his  son 
Charles  James  Edward  Stuart  (known  as  "the  Young  Pre- 
tender") landed  in  Scotland  in  July,  1745,  with  seven  follow- 
ers, while  a  French  force  of  15,000  men  stood  ready  to  cross  to 
England  at  the  first  favorable  moment.  As  so  often  before  in 
English  history,  the   winds  fought  for  England,  driving  the 


485.  Jaco- 
bite rising 
(1745) 

The 


Route  of  the  Young  Pretender, 
1745. 


WIIH.    REGIMES  OF    WALroLK   AND    riTT  410 

Fionch  transports  on  shore,  and  compelling  delay  until  fresh 
ones  could  be  provided.  "  Evidently,"  said  the  French  com- 
mander, ''the  winds  are  not  Jacobites." 

Meanwhile  the  Pretender  rallied  to  his  standard  10,000 
Scotchmen,  mostly  Highlanders,  and  captured  Edinburgh,  thus 
securing  a  supi)ly  of  arms.  After  waiting  in  vain  for  the 
French,  he  invaded  England  by  the  western  route  through 
Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire.  When  he  reached 
Derby  (only  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  miles  from  London) 
he  found  himself  threatened  by  three  armies,  from  the  south, 
north,  and  east  respectively.  His  own  forces  were  greatly 
diminished  by  desertion,  and  he  had  to  retreat  northward. 
After  skirmishes  at  Penrith  and  Bannockburn,  his  army  was 
finally  defeated  and  dispersed  at  the  battle  of  Culloden  (April 
](■»,  174(0.  For  five  months  Charles  wandered  over  Scotland 
as  a  fugitive  without  betrayal  by  his  loyal  adherents,  althongh 
a  reward  of  .-t*.'^0,000  was  placed  upon  his  head.  He  was  then 
received  on  board  a  French  frigate,  and  idtimately  found  a 
refuge  at  Rome,  where  he  died  in  1788,  after  a  long  career  of 
drunkenness  and  vice. 

Severe  punishment  was  inflicted  upon  those  who  took  part 
in  this  uprising.     Three  peers  and  seventy-three  commissioned 
officers  were  executed,  and  many  of  the  rebels  were  trans-       486    Re 
ported  to  America;  but  after  a  year  and  two  months  an    °    j^  °  ,  ^ 
Act  of  Indemnity  was  passed  for  most  of  the  survivors        uprising 
of  the  rel)ellion.     It  was  determined,  however,  that  the  Scot- 
tish  Hiu'hlands  should  no  longer  be  left  in  a  condition  which 
invited  .lacobite  intrigues.     The  Highlanders  were  forbidden 
to  organize  military  forces,  and  to  wear  their  peculiar  dress, 
which  fostered  their  clannish  and  alien  spirit.     The  jjcculiar 
jurisdiction  of  the  Highland  cliiefs,  which  had  outlived  almost 
all  other  remnants  of  feudalism  in  Great  liritain,  was  abol- 
ished.    Strangely  enough,  it  was  found  that  the  best  way  of 
pacifying  the  Highlands  was  to  enroll   Highlanders  for  the 


420 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


military  service  of  England,  in 
special  regiments,  thus  allow- 
ing .free  play  to  their  fighting 
instincts. 

In  1753  hostilities   were  re- 
vived between  the  British  and 
487    Ene-      French     colonies,     which 

land  and        resulted   in  the   so-called 
France  in        ^^         ,  .         ,„ 

America        French   and  Indian    War 

(1753-1756)  (1754-1760)  in  America, 
and  the  Seven  Years'  War 
(1756-1763)  in  Europe.  The 
Erench,  by  virtue  of  their  early 
explorations,  claimed  all  the 
Mississippi  basin  from  the  Ap- 
palachian watershed  westward, 
and  built  a  line  of  forts  to  de- 
fend their  claim.  The  British 
colonists,  however,  formed  a  company  to  settle  the  Ohio 
valley,  and  the  first  clash  of  arms  took  place  about  fifty  miles 
southeast  of  Fort  Duquesne,  now  Pittsburg  (July  4,  1754). 

Within  a  year  the  two  parent  nations  had  drifted  into  a 
condition  of  war,  though  without  any  formal  proclamation. 
Campaigns  were  planned:  (1)  against  Fort  Duquesne,  to 
control  access  to  the  Ohio  valley ;  (2)  against  Niagara,  to  cut 
off  Canada  from  Ohio ;  (3)  against  Crown  Point,  and  thence  to 
Quebec.  The  first  expedition,  under  Braddock,  failed  through 
unskillful  generalship;  the  second  was  abandoned  after  a 
futile  advance  to  Oswego,  on  Lake  Ontario;  and  the  third 
resulted  only  in  the  building  of  Fort  AVilliam  Henry  by  the 
British  and  of  Ticonderoga  by  the  French. 

Meanwhile  Maria  Theresa,  smarting  under  concessions  made 
to  Frederick  the  Great  during  the  Austrian  Succession  War, 
was  intriguing  with  France  to  crush  Prussia,  and  to  gain  to 


One  of  Her  Majesty's  High- 
landers. 


I  |llilH»h 

1  J  «~» 

|uLmitii.M»4.«.>- 


422  STRUGGLE   FOR    EMPHiE 

her  side  not  only  France  but  also  Saxony  and  Russia.     Great 

488.  Prepa-   Britain,  unwilling  to  see  France  enriched,  and  anxious  to 

ration  for      pi-otect  the  Hanoverian  possessions  of  George  II.,  threw 
the  Seven        ^  "^  . 

Years'  War    in  her  lot  witli  Prussia,  and  thus  the  French  and  Indian 

War  merged  into  the  great  Seven  Years'  War. 

The  crisis  of  the  war  brought  into  prominence  a  new  states- 
man of  the  first  rank,  William  Pitt,  who,  as  Secretary  of  State 

in  the  ministries  nominally  headed  by  Devonshire  and 

489.  Policy  -^  ;  1  ■         in 
of  "William     Newcastle,  really  directed  the  war.     Pitt  first  set  himself 

^*"  to  work  to  change  the  conditions  of  Whig  power.     He 

gave  up  bribery,  and  appealed  directly  to  the  sentiment  of 
nationality  and  loyalty  in  the  English  people,  and  thus  he 
secured  a  Parliament  more  nearly  representing  the  English 
people.  He  reorganized  the  army,  replacing  inefficient  officers 
appointed  through  favor  with  others  selected  for  merit  alone. 
Perceiving  that  the  colonial  struggles  were  of  vastly  more  im- 
portance than  that  on  the  Continent  (where  the  greatest  victo- 
ries led  to  no  territorial  changes  of  importance),  Pitt  engaged 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  to  defend  Hanover  for  a  sub- 
sidy of  £670,000  a  year,  and  threw  all  his  energies  into  the  con- 
quest of  Canada  and  of  India.  In  only  one  Continental  battle, 
that  of  Minden  (1759),  did  the  British  take  any  important  part. 
Beginning  with  the  year  1756,  when  war  was  formally  de- 
clared, events  in  America  at  first  proved  favorable  to  France, 

for  the  French  gained  control  of  the  lake  routes  into  the 
490    The 
Seven  Hudson  valley  by  capturing  Fort  Oswego  and  Fort  Wil- 

Years'War,  ^^^^^^  Henry.     Soon  the  tide  turned.     In  1758  Generals 

WGstcni 

phase  Amherst  and  Wolfe  captured  Louisburg,  the  Gibraltar  of 

(1756-1762)   ^^^.^^  America.     Forts  Duquesne,  Niagara,  and  Ticon- 

deroga  fell  within  a  year;   and  in  September,  1759,  General 

Wolfe  made  the  famous  attack  upon  Quebec  which  resulted 

in  its  capture,  and  in  the  death  of  both  commanders,  Wolfe 

and  ]\rontcalm.     A  year  later  IMontreal  also  surrendered,  and 

all  Canada  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  British.     Mea,n- 


WHIG    KKGIMI-S    (IF    WW  Ll'i  iLF,    AM)    ITIT 


423 


'^:,^/'/A^^V'^i'^^^-I     I      B      E      T 
^  _  It  /       •     ^  v^-^.^-"<;-      ^- 


wliili'  thf  ilestniction  of  a  I'rt'iicli  ticrt  wliicli  was  jireparinj,' 
fur  ail  invasion  of  Kuglanil  left  the  Uritisli  five  to  use  their 
Heets  ill  any  <iiiarter  of  the  gl()lx^  In  the  next  three  years, 
many  ishmds  of  the  French  West  Indies  were  captured;  and 
when  Spain  came  to  the  assistance  of  France,  tlie  British 
seized  both  Cuba  and  the  Thilippines  (17G2). 

^Meanwhile  in  India  a  like  struggle  was  going  on.     England 
and   France  had  long  been  waging  a  contest    for  the  posses- 
sion of  that  country,  and  for  the  monopoly  of  trade  in    .„,    „    ^. 
•'  .     .  *91-    Condi- 

the  East.     India  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  two    tions  in  the 

geographical  regions:    Hindustan   in  the  north  and  the  "    ^^^ 

Dekkan  peninsula  in  the  south.  Hindustan  contained  a 
Mohammedan  empire 
with  its  capital  at 
Delhi;  the  Dekkan 
contained  the  strong 
Hindu  state  of  the 
Mahrattas  in  the 
northwest,  and  in 
the  east  and  south 
several  practically  in- 
dependent principali- 
ties, nominally  subject 
to  the  CJreat  Mogul  of 
the  Mohammedan  em- 
pire. The  Fast  India 
<'omi)any  held  three 
posts  on  the  coast  of 
India:    (1)    Fort    St. 

(Jeorge  (the  nucleus  of  Madras,  in  the  Carnatic"),  by  cession 
from  the  native  ruler  of  that  region ;  (2)  Bombay,  by  cession 
from  Portugal  as  the  dowry  of  Charles  II. 's  wife;  (,*?)  Fort 
William  at  Calcutta,  by  direct  cession  from  the  Mogul.  The 
Freucii  also  had  trading  posts  at  Pondicherry,  near  Madras, 


Thk  Fihst  1'kiiish  I'osskssid.ns  i.n  I.vdia. 


424  STRUGGLE   FOR    EMPIRE 

and  at  Chandernagar,  near  Calcutta,  and  they  were  constantly 
intriguing  with  the  native  princes  to  expel  the  British. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  came  a  terrible 
cruelty  at  Calcutta.     Incited  by  the  French,  the  native  viceroy 

492.  The  of  Bengal  attacked  the  East  India  Company's  trading 
winning  of  g|^a^t;ion  at  that  point,  seized  its  property,  and  shut  up  the 
(1757-1761)    British  residents,  146  in  number,  in  a  close,  unventilated 

prison  (since  known  as  the  "Black  Hole  of  Calcutta"),  where, 
during  the  night,  122  died  from  heat  and  suffocation.  The 
news  of  this  atrocity  speedily  reached  Robert  Clive,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Fort  St.  George.  With  a  force  of  900  Europeans 
and  1500  native  soldiers  from  the  Carnatic,  Clive  hastened 
to  Calcutta  and  recaptured  Fort  William;  then  he  advanced 
northward,  and  completely  routed  the  viceroy's  army  of  50,000 
soldiers  in  the  battle  of  Plassey,  on  June  23,  1757. 

This  battle  determined  the  fate  of  northern  India  and  ulti- 
matel}^  of  the  Mogul  Empire,  for  Clive  placed  over  the  prov- 
ince of  Bengal  a  ruler  subservient  to  himself,  other  officers 
later  pursued  a  like  policy,  and  the  East  India  Company  at  last 
found  itself  responsible  for  the  government  of  nearly  all  India. 
In  1761,  the  capture  of  Pondiclierry  destroyed  France's  hope 
of  domination  in  India  ;  she  could  not  hold  India  because  Great 
Britain  had  control  of  the  sea. 

In  the  midst  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  George  II.  died 
(October  25,  1760),  and  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  George 

-«„    mr.         Ill-     The  new  king  disliked  Pitt  and  soon  forced  him 

493.  The  ° 

peace  of  from  office  ;  and  Bute,  his  successor,  hastened  to  end  the 
^^"  war  by  the  peace  of  Paris  (1763).      As  Pitt  had  fore- 

seen, no  territorial  changes  were  made  on  the  Continent,  but 
both  the  far  East  and  the  far  West  were  utterly  transformed. 
Spain  was  obliged  to  purchase  the  restoration  of  Cuba  and  the 
Philippines  by  ceding  Florida  to  Great  Britain.  France  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  all  her  possessions  in  the  mainland  of  North 
America  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  New  Orleans, 


WllU;    KKCl.MKS    OK    WALl'OLE    AND    PUT  425 

together  with  Cape  Breton  Islaml  (wliicli  controlled  access  to 
the  St.  Lawrence),  and  retained  only  the  two  little  islands  of 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  east  of  Cape  Breton.  By  a  treaty 
nuide  a  year  earlier  she  transferred  to  Spain  (in  requital  for 
her  losses  as  the  ally  of  France)  New  Orleans  and  all  the 
territory  of  Louisiana  west  of  the  Mississippi.  As  a  conces- 
sion to  French  pride  certain  islands  in  the  West  Indies  and 
her  trading  posts  in  India  were  restored  to  her. 


The  reigns  of  the  first  two  Hanoverian  kings  covered  the 
period  of  Whig  power   under  Robert  Walpole  and   the   first 
William  Pitt.    Walpole's  problem  was  to  prevent  disturb-     494    sum- 
ing  activity  at  home  or  abroad.     "  He  probably  displayed  ^^^ 

true  wisdom  in  allowing  all  reforms  ...  to  remain  for  a  f^,.'^ o/Enu- 
time  in  abeyance.    The  one  thing  which  England  required       'a««^.  Hi- 
was  rest  ...  to  give  stability  to  the  changes  which  had 
been  going  on."     The  twenty  eventless  years  of  his  rule  were 
a  period  of   recuperation  and  of   material    progress,  but  the 
standard  of  public  nujrality  was  woefully  debased  by  his  un- 
blushing system  of  bril)ery.     Pitt,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the 
champion  of  action  —  of   reforms  at  home  and  of  expansion 
abroad.      His  sagacity  and  energy,  together  with  British  su- 
premacy on  the  sea,  gave  to  Great  Britain  Canada  and  the 
western  slope  of  the  Ajjpalachians,  and  made  possible  Clive's 
victories  in  India.     His  dismissal  in  favor  of  Lord  Bute  was  the 
initial  blunder  of  that  much  blundering  monarch,  George  III. 

TOPICS 

rn  Wliat  does  the  South  Sea  Bubble  show  regarding  England's    Suggestive 
'  ,     .  1        topics 

prosperity  in  1715)  ?     (-')   Why  are  excise  duties  more  unpopular 

than  custom.s  ?  (.3)  Which  are  the  more  productive  ?    (4)  Account 

for  the  practice  of  raising  prime  ministers  to  the  jieerago  on  their 

rftireinent   from  ollicc      ('»)   Wliat   is   meant  by  tlie   "right  of 

.search"?    (G)  Conflicts  between  France  and  the  IIai)sburLC  nilera 

previous  to  the  War  i«f  ihe  Austrian  SucfT.ssion.     (7)   .Make  a  list 

of  England's  territ.  trial  acfjuisitions  from  1«W:}  to  17(5.}. 

WALKKK'S    ENO.    HI9T. — 20 


426 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


Search 
topics 


(8)  The  Bourbon  "Family  Compacts."  (9)  The  fetory  of 
"  Wood's  Half-pence."  (10)  The  battle  of  Foutenoy.  (11)  The 
American  colonies  in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 
(12)  Some  Jacobite  songs.  (13)  Pitt  as  an  orator.  (14)  The 
"  Rule  of  1756."  (15)  Life  on  a  privateer.  (16)  The  battle  of 
Quebec.     (17)  The  Young  Pretender  in  England. 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  246,  402,  421,  42o ;  Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  maps 
43-46,  80,  81 ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  maps  Ixxxiii.  Ixxxvii.  ; 
Hughes,  Geography  of  British  History,  ch.  xiii.  ;  Reich,  Heto 
Students'  Atlas,  maps  33-35. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  IIL  948-1041  ;  Gardiner,  Studeiit's 
History,  712-766;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  746-807;  Green, 
Short  History,  728-764,  —  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  viii. 
ch.  iv. ;  W.  D.  Green,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham  ;  Morley, 
Eobert  Walpole,  —  Chatham ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  Eng- 
land, 765-791  ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  chs.  xxix.  xxx.  ;  Jenks, 
Parliamentary  England,  chs.  v.  vi.  ;  Morris,  The  Early  Hano- 
verians ;  Mahon,  History  of  England,  chs.  xi.-xl. ;  McCarthy, 
History  of  the  Four  Georges,  chs.  i.-xli. ;  Seeley,  Expansion  of 
England,  20-163,  207-250  ;  Fiske,  New  France  and  Neio  England, 
chs.  vii.-x.  ;  Parkman,  France  and  England  in  North  America, 
pts.  v.  vi.  vii. ;  Inness,  Britain  and  Her  Rivals  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  bks.  i.-iii.  ;  Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
I.  chs.  ii.  iii.  viii.  ;  Routledge,  Popular  Progress,  chs.  iv.-vi. ;  Mac- 
kinnon,  Union  of  England  and  Scotland,  ch.  xiii. ;  Lyall,  Bise  of 
British  Dominion  in  India,  iv.-viii.  ;  Macaulay,  Essays  ("Wal- 
pole," "Lord  Clive,"  "Earl  of  Chatham");  Trevelyan,  Early 
History  of  Charles  James  Fox,  chs.  ii.-iv. ;  Wilson,  Lord  Clive ; 
Arbuthnot,  Lord  Clive  ;  Traill,  Social  England,  ch.  xvii.  See  New 
England   History  Teachers'    Association,  Syllabus,  258-259. 

Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  89-90,  92-96;  Kendall, 
Source-Book,  nos.  116-118;  Henderson,  Side  Lights,  242-265; 
Terry,  The  Last  Jacobite  Rising  ;  Saintsbury,  Political  Pamphlets; 
Hervey,  3Ie7noirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  IL  ;  H,  Walpole,  Letters, 
—  Memoirs. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  355- 
361  ;  Ainsworth,  The  South  Sea  Bubble ;  Henty.  With  Clive  in 
India  ;  Holt,  Out  in  the  Forty-five  ;  Scott,  Waverley,  —  Red  Gazint- 
jet,  —  The  Surgeon'^s  Daughter;  Stevenson,  Kidnapped,  —  David 
Balfour;  Thackeray,  The  Virginians. 


CllAriKK    XXX 


of  George 
III. 

Wal'lc- 

grave's 

Memoirs, 

JT56 


GKORG?:    III.    AXn     THK    NKW   AHSOI.U  IISM  (17G;:U1789) 

Close  upon  Great  Britain's  great  struggle  for  colonial  power, 
followed  problems  of   both  internal  and  colonial  government. 
Kiui,'  George  III.,  the  first  Hanoverian  monarch  of  Eng-  495    Policy 
lish  birth,  was  unintelligent,  narrow,  obstinate.     AValde- 
grave,  appointed  liis  governor   in  175G,  says,  "1    found 
his  Koyal  Highness  uncommonly  full  of  princely  preju- 
dices, contracted  in  the  nursery,  and  improved   by  the 
society  of  bed-chamber  women,  and  pages  of  the  back  stairs." 
His  one   idea  was  to  substitute   for  the  existing  system  of 
:,'overnment     by    ministers,     the 
l)ersonal     rule    enjoyed    Ity    the 
Tudors    and    the    early    Stuarts. 
"  George,  be  a  king,''  his  mother 
had   reiterated,   while   trying   to 
form  his  character  along  kingly 
lines  ;  and  George  was  determined 
not  only  to  be  a  king,  but  to  be 
(he  king.     He  knew  that  parlia- 
mentary support  could  be  bought ; 
and  he  early  set  to  work  to  sub- 
stitute direct  royal  i)atronage  for 
that  of  the  Whig  ministers. 

To  understand  why  Parliament 
could  be  bought,  we  must  consider  why  the  vdice  of  Parliament 
wa.s  no  longer  the  voice  of  the  nation.      In  theory,  Parlia-   496  Parlia- 
ment consisted   of  a  body   uf  freely   elected    representa-    repre°enta 
tives  of  the  people,  and  a   more  conservative  Iwdy  of  tion 

427 


(;k.()U<;k  111.  .\iJotT  I'W. 
Wcarinu  Ua.i\pe  of  the  Order  of  the 


(iartor. 
He.chy. 


From    a    i)aintin>;   by 


428  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

hereditary  peers,  who  were  supposed  to  be  profoundly  in- 
terested in  the  welfare  of  the  country  because  of  their  great 
landed  possessions ;  and,  in  theory,  the  two  bodies,  after 
extended  and  free  discussion,  registered  in  their  votes  their 
best  judgment  on  public  issues. 

In  fact,  the  borough  members  of  the  lower  house  represented 
a  limited  number  of  towns  which  had  been  made  parliamen- 
tary boroughs  at  the  discretion  of  various  monarchs,  often 
for  purely  political  ends ;  and  the  county  members  repre- 
sented only  tlie  local  magnates,  since  the  suffrage  was  based 
Bright,  o\\  laudholding.    "  The  government,"  said  the  lord  justice 

History  of      ^^^  court,  ''  is  made  up  of  the  landed  interest :  as  for  the 

England,  '  ^  ' 

III.  1179         rabble  who  have  nothing  but  personal  property,  what  hold 

has  the  nation  on  them  ?  "  The  Whig  peers  were  masters 
of  a  large  majority  of  the  parliamentary  boroughs,  so  that  the 
House  of  Commons  represented  not  the  people  but  tne  House 
of  Lords  over  again.  Those  places  which  were  absolutely  con- 
trolled by  a  single  person  were  called  his  "  pocket  boroughs," 
and  the  defenders  of  the  systeju  pointed  with  pride  to  the 
large  number  of  able  public  servants,  like  Pitt,  Burke,  and 
Fox,  whose  first  entrance  into  Parliament  was  as  representar 
tive  of  some,  pocket  borough. 

When  George  III.  became  king,  the  system  of  corruption 
gained  new  force.     Great  families  like  the  Pelhams  and  the 

.««    ™,r  Cavendishes  could  bribe  ambitious  politicians  with  nomi- 

49?.  The  ^ 

confusion  of  nations  to  their  pocket  boroughs,  or  with  money ;   but 

parties  ^|^g  king  could  give  them  lucrative  and  honorable  posts, 

pensions,  and  even  peerages.  More  than  half  of  the  members 
of  the  lower  house  held  such  positions,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
Seven  Years'  War  a  new  Tory  party  had  sprung  up,  accepting 
the  king  as  its  political  leader,  and  voting  blindly  at  his  dicta- 
tion. Against  this  government  by  "the  king's  friends,"  the 
Whigs  could  present  only  a  divided  opposition.  One  party, 
led  by  the  Marquis  of  Eockingham,  advocated  a  pure,  upright, 


GEORCK    III.    AND    IHK   NKW    AIJSHLUTISM 


42y 


America 


patriotic  government;  a  second  group,  under  the  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford, preferred  the  old  policy  of  bribery  ;  a  third,  under  George 
Grenville,  took  an  independent  attitude,  and  clamored  for 
ei-onomy  in  government,  a  virtue  which  neither  Whigs  nor 
Tories  could  boast.  A  fourth  group,  centering  about  the 
Itrilliunt  but  now  erratic  I'itt,  found  its  bond  of  union  in 
jiersonal  loyalty  to  their  chief  rather  than  in  clearly  defined 
principles. 

Two  months  after  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1763,  Bute's  un- 
popularity led  to  his  resignation;  and  as  Pitt  and  the  king 
were  hopelessly  at  odds,  inferior  men  took  up  the  task  ^^ 

of  government.     In  an  effort  to  raise  a  revenue  from    taxation  of 
the  colonies,  Grenville  caused  the  passage  of  the  Stamp 
Act  (1705"),  which  raised  in  America  a  tempest  of  opposition. 

Rockingham  carried  a  resolution 
asserting  Parliament's  right  to  tax 
(17(»Gj,  and  then  secured  the  repeal 
of  the  Stamp  Act,  *'  as  a  practical 
admission  that  the  right  in  ques- 
tion should  be  exercised  only  in 
cases  where  the  colonies  did  not 
object." 

Yet  Townshend,  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  in  the  Cabinets 
of  Chatham  (Pitt)  and  Grafton,  re- 
newed the  attempt  to  tax  the  colo- 
nics in  his  import  duties  on  glass, 
tea,    etc.    (1707).       The    new 
storm  thus  raised  in  America  was  so  great  that  North,   ^^^^  Revolu 
who  succeeded  Grafton  in  1770,  was  forced  to  repeal  most       turn,  I.  2: 
of  the  clauses  of  the  Townshend  Act;  but  the  king  and  his 
spokesmen  in  Parliament  felt  that  to  give  uj)  taxing  the  colo- 
nies was  simply  yielding  to  rebellion,  and  North,  against  his 
own  judgment,  gratified  the  king  by  retaining  a  nominal  tax 


"  Bkitain's  Statk  Pilot 
foi'ndkkixo  on  taxa- 
TION   RofK." 

From  a  caric-itiir."  <>f  I^tnl 
North,  .Iiuie,  1779. 


Tri'velyati, 
The  Aineri- 


430  8TRUGGLE  FOR  EMPIRp: 

on  tea.      The  attempts  to  enforce  this  duty   in  the  face  of 

determined  opposition  led  at  last  to  war. 

In  this  contest  over  taxation,  the  arguments  of  the  home 

government  were :  (1)  that  the  expeditious  against  Duquesne, 

499.  Two      Niagara,    Ticonderoga,    and  Quebec    during    the    Seven 

aspects  of      Years'  War  were  undertaken  to  secure  territory  for  the 
the  colonial  *' 

question        development  of  the  colonies;    (2)  that  an  army  of  ten 

thousand  men  must  now  be  maintained  in  America  solely  for 
the  defense  of  the  colonists ;  (3)  that  it  was  only  just  that  the 
colonists  should  contribute  toward  the  support  of  this  army ; 
(4)  that  it  was  for  the  home  government  to  fix  the  share  which 
the  colonies  should  pay,  and  to  levy  it  by  direct  taxation. 

The  colonists  replied  that  this  group  of  arguments  was  a 
palpable  misrepresentation  of  the  actual  facts.  They  declared : 
(1)  that  Great  Britain  defended  her  colonies  simply  because 
they  were  necessary  to  her  commercial  prosperity  ;  (2)  that  the 
expenses  recently  incurred  represented  virtually  the  necessary 
insurance  on  British  commerce ;  (3)  that  taxation  without 
representation  in  Parliament  was  unconstitutional,  and  such 
representation  was  impracticable ;  (4)  that,  in  any  case,  Eng- 
land had  only  to  ask  the  colonies  for  financial  aid,  and  it  would 
be  voted  through  their  representative  assemblies.  To  this  the 
home  government  replied  that  experience  proved  that  it  was 
impracticable  to  secure  united  action  by  the  whole  body  of 
colonies,  since  each  colony  refused  or  neglected  to  contribute 
unless  its  own  interests  were  in  danger. 

Within  Parliament   there  were  many  opinions.     Grenville 

stood  by  the  principle  that  Parliament  possessed  a  complete 

right  to  tax  whenever  necessary.     Three  fourths  of  the 

liamentand  Commons  followed  Grenville   and  the  king  in  a  blind 

t  e  CO  onies  (determination   to   maintain   this   principle  at  any  cost. 

"  In  this  season  and  on  America,"  said  the  historian  Gibbon, 

"  the  Archangel  Gabriel  would  not  be  heard."     Nevertheless, 

a  few  wiser  men  still  strove  to  bring  Parliament  to  reason. 


GKORGK    III.    AND     Till:    NKW    ABSOLUTISM  431 

Hurke  urged  that  theory  had  no  placo  in  the  argument;  that 
if  the  colonists  sliould  be  driven  to  revolt  against  the  mother 
country,  it  would  cause  a  greater  financial  loss  than  in  many 
such  wars  as  that  recently  ended ;  so  that  for  practical  reasons 
everything  ought  to  be  done  to  conciliate  the  embittered  colo- 
nists. Pitt  declared  that  Parliament  would  sooner  or  later  be 
compelled  to  retract  the  hated  laws,  and  argued  that  a  sharp 
distinction  should  be  drawn  between  taxation  for  revenue 
(which  he  opposed),  and  taxation  for  regulating  trade  in 
favor  of  British  commerce  (which  he  defended).  Grafton 
and  North  also  wished  to  recede  from  the  position  into  which 
Townshend  had  led  the  minority,  but  the  king  was  inflexi- 
ble. He  controlled  both  the  Cabinet  and  the  Parliament;  he 
insisted  that  the  rebels  must  be  forced  to  submit;  and  the 
result  was  war. 

The  truth  is,  that  either  a  forcible  or  a  peaceful  revolution  in 
the  relations  of  Great  Britain  and  America  was  now  inevitable, 
because  the  ancient  theories  about  commerce  and  colonies       501.  The 
no  longer  corresponded  with  the  facts.     These  theories   "^gp'^o^fhe 
held:  (1)  that  all  land  acquired  by  settlement  or  by  con-        struggle 
quest  belonged  to  the  king;    (2)  that  English  citizens  were 
allowed  to  settle  in  these  lands  and  cultivate  them,  on  the  tacit 
condition  that  part  of  the  profits  should  revert  to  the  king; 
and  (3)  that  the  king  was  bound  to  prevent  their  commerce 
and  manufacturing  industries  of  all  sorts  from  interfering  with 
similar  industries  in  England. 

Since  many  industries  in  England  were  carried  on  under 
monopolies  created  by  the  monarch,  the  home  government 
made  the  mistake  of  restricting  those  indu.stries  in  the  Ameri- 
can colonies:  and  it  mad«*  a  still  greater  mistake  in  the  long 
series  of  navigation  acts,  and  in  the  restrictions  on  trade  and 
markets  eufdrct'd  by  tin-  Pmard  <»f  Traile,  which  at  that  time  had 
control  of  colonial  affairs.  Thus  trade  and  manufactures  in 
the  colonies  were  already  groaning  under  heavy  burdens  when 


432  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

the  Towushend  acts  fused  into  a  single  issue  the  two  ques- 
tions of  trade  restriction  and  of  taxation.  But  time  had  al- 
ready determined  the  issue  of  the  whole  matter.  Economic 
laws,  more  powerful  than  princes  or  parliaments,  declare  that 
three  millions  of  people  can  not  be  compelled  to  trade  in  the 
dearest  and  most  remote  market,  or  to  buy  what  they  can  more 
cheaply  and  easily  manufacture. 

While  Parliament  was  busily  championing  its  right  to  levy 

taxes,   and    ignoring    the   question   of    expediency,   riots    in 

502.  Out-      America,  non-importation   agreements,   and    the   collec- 

breakofthe  ^-^^^  q£  munitions  of  war  were  proving  the  seriousness 

War  of  the   situation.      Even   Lord  North   decided  (March, 

1775)   to   abandon   the   attempt   to  tax,  in  the   case   of  any 

colony  that  should  voluntarily  appropriate  the  money  required 

for  its  own  defense  and  government ;  but  the  news  of  this  bill 

arrived  in  the  colonies  too  late,  for  blood  had  been  shed  at 

Lexington  (April   19,  1775).      As  the  War  of  the  American 

Eevolution  is  usually  treated  as  an  important  epoch  in  United 

States  history,  its  details  are   here  omitted;    the  aim  being 

merely  to  make  clear  its  significance  as  an  episode  in  English 

history. 

During  the  progress  of  this  war.  Great  Britain  was  much 

hampered  by  Continental  complications,  and  particularly  by 

503    Euro-    ^^^^   steady  hostility  of  France.     A  year  after  the  out- 

pean  fac-       break  of  the  war,  France,  which  had  again  built  up  her 

colonTal^*     navy,  began  by  secret  loans  to  encourage  the  American 

struggle        colonies,  partly  in   revenge   for  her  losses  during   the 

Seven  Years'  War,  partly  in   the   hope   of   destroying   Great 

Britain's  commercial  monopoly  in  the  West  Indies.     Pitt,  now 

Earl  of  Chatham,  urged  the  government  to  concede  to  the 

colonists  all  of  their  demands  short  of  independence,  and  to 

withdraw  all  troops  in  America  for  use  against  France,  the  real 

foe  of   England ;  Pvockingham,  Burke,  and  Fox  also  pleaded 

the  cause  of  the  colonists,  but  in  vain. 


geor'gk  hi.  and  tiik  ni:w  absolutism         433 

The  defeat  of  the  l^ritish  uiuler  (ieneral  Hurgoyne  at 
Saratoga  in  1777  caused  >«orth  to  hasten  to  pass  a  Concilia- 
tion Hill  on  the  lines  laid  down  by  Chatham  (February,  1778). 
He  was  again  too  late,  for  France  at  once  formed  an  open 
alliance  with  the  revolted  colonies,  on  the  single  condition 
that  they  should  never  again  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of 
Great  Britain  (^February,  1778).  In  1779  Spain  also  declared 
war  against  Great  Britain  with  the  idea  of  recovering  Gibraltar, 
and  in  1780  Russia  organized  a  league  of  the  northern  states 
to  maintain  an  armed  neutrality.  This  was  a  plan  for  resist- 
ing Great  Britain's  attempt  to  exercise  the  right  of  searching 
neutral  vessels  for  contraband  of  war.  Holland  carried  her 
resistance  so  far  that  in  1780  Great  Britain  declared  war 
upon  her  also. 

It  was  the  danger  from  the  fleets  of  these  powerful  enemies 

that  kept  Great  Britain  from  throwing  an  overwhelming  force 

into  America,  blockading  her  priiuii)al  ports,  and  crush-   ^^^    Naval 

ing  the  rebellion  by  mere  force  of  numbers.      "  We  have   phase  of  the 

.      1  •^-  11  V,     1    Kevolution- 

now  come  to  ...  a  truly  maritime  war,  winch  .  .  .  natl        ^^^  -^^j^j. 

not  been  seen  since  the  days  of  De  liuyter  and  Tourville.     Muii.m.ln- 

Waged,  from  the  extended  character  of  the  British  Em-     Se^a  Power 

pire,  in  all  the  quarters  of  the  globe  at  once,  the  atten-    on  History, 

tion  of  the  student  is  called  now  to  the  East  Indies, 

now  to  the  West ;  now  to  the  shores  of  the  United  States,  and 

thence  to  those  of  England  ;  from  New  York  and  Chesapeake 

Bay  to  Gibraltar  and  Minorca,  to  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  the 

Cape  of  rjood  Hope,  and  Ceylon."     France  had  about  eighty 

first-class  vessels,  Spain  about  sixty,  Great  Britain  about  a 

hundred  and  fifty  ;   but  Great  T.ritain  had  by  far  the  greater 

number  of  remote  and  vulnerable  possessions,  eaeh  of  which 

required  a  squadron  for  its  defense. 

The  critical   naval  event  of  the  war  was  the  cfM>pi'rati<tn  of 

the  French  admiral  De  (Jrasse  with  Washington  and  Lafayette 

in  the  operations  that  ended   at    Yorktown.     In  1781   Lord 


338 


434 


STRUGGLE   FOR  EMPIRE 


Cornwallis,  on  whose  campaign  in  the  southern  colonies  all 
England's  hopes  in   America   rested,    allowed    himself   to   be 
505    End  of  penned  in  at  Yorktown,  expecting  to  receive  supplies  and 
the  Revolu-   reenforcements   from   the    British  fleet   under   Admiral 
Vf&v''^  Graves.     De  Grasse's  French  fleet  of  28  ships  blocked 

(1781-1782)  ^^e  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay,  however,  and  easily  re- 
pelled the  relieving  squadron  of  19  ships.  As  a  result,  Corn- 
wallis was  obliged  to  surrender,  October  18,  1781. 

This  disaster  was  followed    by  the  capture  of  Minorca  by 

the  Spanish  fleet,  and  of   many  of   the  British  West   Indies 

506.  Treaty  by  the  French  fleet.      The  home  government  was  obliged 

of  Ver-  reluctantly  to  accept  the  fact  of  defeat ;  North  gave  way 

(1783)  to    Rockingham    (later    succeeded    by   Shelburne) ;    and 

negotiations   for   peace  were   begun    in   1782,    first   with   the 

American  colonists,  and  later  with  France  and  Spain.      The 

brilliant   victory  of    Admiral    Rodney    in    the    West    Indies 

(April,  1782),  and  the  successful  defense  of  Gibraltar  against 


GiBRALTAH. 


GEOIUJK    III.    AM)    rilK    Ni:\V    AHSOLI'TIS.M  -i'.ji'j 

a  desperate  attack  (XovenilMT,  17.SL*)  enabled  the  British  coui- 
inissioners  to  obtain  Iwtter  terms  than  niiglit  liave  been  ex- 
pected. (Jreat  liritain,  of  course,  h)st  tlie  territory  occiipied 
by  the  revolted  cohtnies  —  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
-Mississippi  River,  south  of  the  Great  Lakes.  She  ceded  to 
Spain  Florida  and  the  island  of  ]\Iinorca;  and  made  various 
exflianges  with  France  of  territory  in  the  West  Indies,  iu 
Africa,  and  in  India.  She  also  conceded  to  France  the  right  to 
fortify  the  dismantled  fortress  of  Dunkirk. 

Throughout  the  American  tight  for  freedom,  an  agitation  for 
political  reforms  had  been  going  on  in  England,  led  by  lUirke, 
who  wanted  sinecure  offices  abolished,  and  by  Chatham,  507 

who   demanded    the    disfranchisen^.ent   of    pocket,    now    Y^^^^^  f°^ 

*  '  the  freedom 

called  "  rotten,"  boroughs  (^§  49()).  But  reform  dei)ended  of  the  press 
on  the  education  of  the  people  through  criticism  of  the  exist- 
ing government  in  the  press,  and  the  freedom  of  the  ]nvss  was 
really  the  outcome  of  the  Wilkes  episode,  which  lasted  from 
17G3  to  17G9.  Wilkes  was  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  also 
the  editor  of  a  publication  called  the  Nortli  Briton.  In  the 
forty-tifth  number  of  that  periodical  (April,  ITO.'i)  appeared 
an  editorial  in  which  the  king's  speech  to  Parliament  was 
severely  critici-sed ;  and  Grenville  was  persuaded  by  the  king 
to  prosecute  the  author,  the  printers,  and  the  i)ublishers  of  the 
article.  'Wilkes  claimed  the  parliamentary  privilege  of  exemp- 
tion from  arrest,  and  the  king  in  his  wrath  induced  the  Com- 
mons to  exi»el  Wilkes  from  the  Ilnu.se  on  the  ground  that  the 
obnoxious  No.  4/5  was  a  libel  against  the  government. 

London,  ami  in  a  sense  the  whole  nation,  took  up  tht^  cause 
of  Wilkes  as  a  champion  of  ])opular  rights  against  arbitrary 
rule,  and  a  long  contest  followed  in  which  Wilkes  was  508. 

re])eatedly  elected  to  Parliament,  and  as  often  expelled,   t^e^^eej^o^i^ 
The  Commons    finally    declared    Wilkes    ineligible    for      of  election 
election  to  Parliament.     The  excit<Mnent  was  intense.     Mobs 
paraded  the  streets  of  London,  shouting  "  Wilkes  and  Liberty  I" 


436  STRUGGLE    FOR    EMPIRE 

An  able  anonymous  writer  (probably  Sir  Philip  Francis),  under 
the  assumed  name  of  "Junius,"  virulently  attacked  the  gov- 
ernment for  attempting  to  limit  the  freedom  of  elections. 
"Remember,"  wrote  Junius  to  George  III.,  "that  while  the 
crown  was  acc^uired  by  one  revolution,  it  may  be  lost  by  an- 
other." In  1774,  on  Wilkes's  fifth  election  to  Parliament, 
the  Commons  permitted  him  to  take  his  seat. 

This  whole  affair  helped  to  train  the  people  in  united  action. 
It  developed  the  custom  of  holding  mass  meetings  of  the  pop- 

509.  Grow-  ulace  to  discuss  and  agitate  reforms,  and  to  bring 
ingpower  pi-essure  to  bear  upon  Parliament  by  petitions  and 
people  otherwise ;    and  in  general  it   encouraged  the  majority, 

who  had  hitherto  accepted  the  control  of  a  minority,  to  assert 
their  rights.  The  agitation  connected  with  the  Wilkes  case, 
and  especially  the  caustic  and  merited  criticism  of  writers 
like  Junius,  showed  the  people  how  badly  they  were  being 
governed,  and  how  important  it  was  that  the  servants  of  the 
people  should  be  closely  watched.  In  1771  Parliament 
attempted  to  check  public  criticism  of  its  actions  by  an  attack 
upon  a  newspaper  publisher  named  Miller,  who  had  Q^lled  a 
member  of  Parliament  "  a  paltry  insignificant  insect " ;  but 
the  attack  failed,  and,  from  that  time  on,  the  publication  of 
the  proceedings  of  Parliament,  and  newspaper  criticisms  upon 
those  proceedings  made  in  good  faith,  were  unrestricted. 

In  1780  Parliament  so  far  bent  to  the  demand  for  reform 
as  to  pass  a  resolution  that  "  the  influence  of  the  crown  has 

510.  Col-  increased,  is  increasing,  and  ought  to  be  diminished"; 
lapse  of  the  ^^^^  •  ^^  ^  ^^^  months  all  hope  of  sweeping  reforms  van- 
movement     ished   as   a   result   of   the    Gordon   riots    (June,    1780). 

These  were  caused  by  a  genuine  reform  measure  —  an  act  to 
relieve  Roman  Catholics  of  certain  political  disabilities  dating 
from  the  Revolution  of  1688  —  which  inflamed  the  bigotry 
and  intolerance  of  the  masses.  Under  the  lead  of  Lord 
George    Gordon,    a    monster    petition    was    prepared;    mobs 


GEOIU.K    111.    AND     rilK    NEW    ABSnl.lilS.M  437 

fanned ;  and  for  six  days  riots  raged  in  London  and  various 

other  localities.     They  were  suppressed  only  with  very  great 

(litticultv,  ami  caused  widespread  fear  of  placing  power  m  the 

hands  of  the  lower  classes. 

As  soon  as  peace  with  America  was  assured,  the  progressive 

Whig  leaders  again  took  up  the  question  of  reforms.     Irelaiul 

was  becoming  desperate  over  British  restrictions  on  her    511.   Trou- 

trade,  and  demanded  that  the  Irish  Parliament  be  given   .    ,     ^"^ 
'  '^  Ireland  and 

the  sole   power   to  legislate  for   Ireland.      In   1779,  on  India 

motion  of  Charles  James  Fox  (the  friend  of  Ireland  as  of 
America),  an  act  was  passed  repealing  the  Poynings  Law 
(§  -J8(.i),  thus  restoring  to  the  Irish  the  right  of  self-govern- 
ment. India,  too,  demanded  attention ;  for  the  greed  of  the 
East  India  Company  and  the  evils  of  its  system  of  government 
were  producing  terrible  results.  Warren  Hastings,  made  gov- 
t*rnor  of  Bengal  in  1772,  was  greatly  hampered  by  the  hostility 
of  his  council,  the  intrigues  of  his  native  subjects,  and  the 
attacks  of  outlying  tribes.  He  was  consequently  tempted 
into  various  acts  of  extortion.  In  1783  Fox,  in  cooperation 
with  Burke,  introduced  a  bill  for  the  better  government  of 
India,  but  it  was  defeated  in  the  House  of  Lords  through  the 
influence  of  the  king.  As  a  result  of  this  failure,  the  minis- 
try resigned,  and  the  younger  Pitt  became  prime  minister 
(December,  1783). 

.  William  Pitt,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  was  twenty-five 
vrars   old   in  1783.     He  was   not  so  great   an   orator   as  his 
tatlier,  but  he  was  a  greater  financier,  a  better  leader  of      512.  Rise 
men,  and  in  every  way  saner  in  judgment.     Px'fore  he     °    pj\^'^j^ 
became    prime   minister   he    was   earning   only   £3(>0  a         younger 
year  as  a  barrister;  yet  he  refused  an  office  worth  £;'>00<t  a 
year  because  he  was  determined  never  to  accei)t  a  subordinate 
situation.     When  invited  by  the  king  to  form  a  ministry,  he 
had  but  a  handful  of  supporters  in  the  House,  and  liis  meas- 
ures were   repeatedly  voted  down;   but  his  courage  and  his 


438 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


ability  won  the  admiration  of  Parliament,  and  after  weeks  of 
fighting  he  defeated  his  enemy,  Fox,  and  built  up  a  new  Tory 

party  which  held  a  long 
lease  of  power. 

Within  a  year  of  his 
appointment,  Pitt  car- 
ried through  Parlia- 
ment an  India  Bill 
under  which  India  was 
governed  until  1858. 
This  bill  divided  the 
responsibility  for  the 
proper  government  of 
India  between  the  East 
India  Company  and  a 
board  of  control  com- 
posed of  members  of  the 
Privy  Council.  Hast- 
ings, who  had  returned 
to  England  under  a 
cloud,     was    now    im- 


The  Younger  William  Pitt  at  the 
Age  of  30. 

Portrait  by  Gainsborough. 


sition  of 
Australia 


peached  for  alleged  oppression  in  India ;  but  after  a  trial  last- 
ing from  1788  to  1796,  he  was  acquitted. 

During   the   years  1768-1779   memorable   discoveries  were 
made  by  Captain  James  Cook,  whose  daring  and   enterprise 

-,„    ,      .    recall  the  work  of  the  Elizabethan  explorers.     He  sailed 
513.  Acqui-  ^ 

twice  around  the  world,  and  each  time  made  extensive 
explorations  in  the  southern  Pacific.  He  surveyed  and 
charted  the  coasts  of  eastern  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
lesser  islands,  and,  by  taking  possession  of  the  eastern 
coasts  of  Australia  for  Great  Britain,  laid  the  foundation  of 
her  great  colonial  possessions  in  that  region.  For  a  time,  how- 
ever, the  government  failed  to  realize  the  value  of  the  new 
possessions,  and  turned  Australia  into  a  convict  station  by 


GEOUCJE    III.    AM)    illi;    NKW    AliSuLUTlSM 


439 


— -T 

iK*     n      lT7i-;4 

SrJ       ..        ITT«-:» 


■^^^^^^z. 


'.      '^--Va;         ly) 


(mok's  \'.)VA(;i;s  in  the  South   1'a<  inc. 

sending  out  1030  convicts  to  Botany  l'>ay,  near  the  present 
town  of  Sydney,  in  17X7. 


The  internal  history  of  England  from  1700  to  1783  is  the 
history  of  George  Ill.'s  struggle  to  destroy  the  ''government 
machine"  which  Walpole  had  created.     To  do  this  he     5^4    sum- 
(•ornii)ted    Parliament   and   the    jjarlianientary    electors,  mary 

debauched  the  public  service,  misused  the  public  funds,  and  left 
men  like  Pitt  and  P.urke  in  obscurity  while  less  far-sighted  men 
like  Cirenviile  and  Townshend  steered  the  ship  of  state  upon 
the  rocks.  These  men  first  goaded  the  Americjui  colonists  into 
rebellion  by  unwise  and  unjust  laws,  and  then,  through  ])ride 
and  false  ideas  of  disoi])line,  drove  them  to  declare  tlieir  inde- 
pendence. Incompetent  government  finally  brought  England 
where,   for  the   first  time   in   a  hundred  years.   France  could 


440 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


dispute  with  her  the  supremacy  of  the  seas.  In  these  dark 
times  the  hope  of  the  nation  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  people 
(as  shown  in  the  Wilkes  episode  and  the  Junius  letters)  were 
learning  to  criticise  the  government  as  if  it  were  their  servant 
and  not  their  master. 

TOPICS 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


(1)  Contrast  the  training  of  George  III.  for  the  kingship  with 
that  of  his  two  predecessors.  (2)  What  previous  monarchs  med- 
dled with  the  distribution  of  seats  in  Parliament  for  political 
ends?  (3)  The  evils  and  the  advantages  (if  any)  of  the  pocket- 
borough  system.  (4)  What  was  the  effect  of  George  III.'s 
methods  on  the  quality  of  the  public  service  ?  (5)  For  whose 
benefit  did  Great  Britain  defend  British  territory  in  America 
against  the  French  from  1758  to  1763  ?  ^6)  What  had  Spain  to  gain 
by  making  war  against  Great  Britain  ?  (7)  Why  was  the  right  of 
searching  neutral  vessels  so  vigorously  maintained  by  Great  Britain, 
and  so  stoutly  opposed  by  Holland  ?  (8)  How  long  had  Great 
Britain  been  in  possession  of  Florida  when  she  ceded  it  to  Spain  in 
1783  ?  (9)  When  and  how  had  France  lost  the  right  to  fortify 
Dunkirk  ?  (10)  Show  how  the  liberty  gained  for  the  press  in 
1771  was  an  advance  on  that  gained  in  169-5.  (11)  Was  Wilkes  a 
martyr  to  a  cause  ? 

(12)  Burke's  description  of  colonial  conditions  in  his  speech  on 
Conciliation  with  America.  (13)  North's  bargain  with » the  East 
India  Company  regarding  the  importation  of  tea  into  the  American 
colonies.  (14)  Could  the  colonies  have  gained  their  independence 
without  the  aid  of  France  ?  (15)  The  siege  of  Gibraltar.  1779-1782. 
(16)  The  Wilkes  riots  in  London.  (17)  Dickens's  account  of  the 
Gordon  riots  in  Barnaby  Budge.  (18)  Contemporary  criticism  of 
the  navigation  acts.  (19)  Warren  Hastings  in  India.  (20)  Friend- 
ship of  Charles  James  Fox  for  America. 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  421,  545 ;  Gardiner.  School  Atlas,  maps  47,  48  ; 
Reich,  Xev:  Students'  Atlas,  maps  35,  .39,  40. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  III.  1035-1144  ;  Gardiner,  StudenVs 
History,  chs.  xlviii.-l.  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  804-853  ; 
Green.  Short  History,  764-798  ;  Histoi-y  of  the  English  Beople. 
bk.  ix.  chs.  i.  ii. ;  Montague,  Elements  of  Constitutional  History. 
174-184;   W.  D.  Green,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham;  Powell 


GEORGK    111.    AND     TllK    NKW    A  M.Si  )LrilSM  4  41 

and  Tout,  History  nf  England,  lik.  ix.  ths.  i.  ii.  ;  Brewer,  .S7m- 
dent's  Hump,  ch,  xxxi.  ;  Mahtm,  IlislDry  of  Entjlamh  clis.  xli.- 
xlix.  Ixi.-lxix.  ;  MeCartliy,  History  <»/  the  Four  Geoyyes,  flis.  xlii.- 
lix.  ;  Lt'rky,  Enylnml  in  the  Eiyhteenth  Century,  chs.  x.-xviii. ; 
Illness,  Britain  and  Her  Jiivals,  bks.  iv.  v.  ;  Jenks,  Parliamentary 
England -ch^.  vii.-ix. ;  Trevi'lyan.  Tli^-  American  Bevolution,  I.  II., 
—  Early  HiKtory  of  Charles  James  Fox  ;  Ilassall,  The  lialanit-  of 
Power,  1715-17S:>\  Macaulay,  Essays  (-'Earl  of  Clialliam." 
"Warren  Hastings")  ;  Lyall,  Rise  oj  British  Dominion  in  India, 
cbs.  ix.-xii.,  —  Warren  Hastings ;  Kent,  The  English  liadirals, 
ch.  i. ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  chs.  xlviii.-li.  ;  Morris,  History  of  Ireland, 
1494-lSGS,  ch.  vii. ;  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  chs.  Hi.  iv. ; 
Wright,  Carirature  History  of  the  Georges,  chs.  viii.-xii.  ;  Taswell- 
Languiead,  Constitutional  History,  576-')84,  614-623,  0.31-6.30; 
Rawson,  Twenty  Famous  Xaral  Battles,  ch.  viii.  ;  Morley,  Edmund 
Burke.  See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus, 
259-260.   • 

Adams  ami  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  240-254  ;  Colby.  Sources 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  l»7-0'.»  ;  Kendall.  Source-Book. 
nos,  10:^IU7,  111,  111>-122;  Hill,  Liherly  Documents,  ehs.  xi.-xiv.  ; 
Henderson,  Side  Lights,  •260-272  ;  Wade.  Letters  of  Junius  \  Burke, 
Speeches,  —  Pamphlets;  Smith,  The  IJ^reenville  Papers;  North, 
Correspondence  tcith  George  III. ;  Chatham,  Correspondence. 

Bates  and  Conian,  English  History  told  l>y  English  Poets,  3(11-    Illustrative 
ai5;  Churchill,  Richard  Carvel;  Cooper,  The  Pilot.— The  Spy;    ^*""''* 
Henty,  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie;  Scott,  Guy  Manueriny. 


wai.kf.k'-*  kng.  hi''t.  —  27 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

LIFE  AND  MANNERS  IN  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 

The  early  Hanoverian  period  was  a  period  of  progress  in 
almost  all  material  lines.     The  steady  growth  of  the  population 

,„     .     .      and  the  drafting  of  more  and  more  laborers  from  the  land 

515.  Agn-  ° 

cultural  to  manufacturing  caused  a  rise  in  the  value  of  farm  prod- 
con  1  ons  yg^g^  a,nd  this  in  turn  led  to  improved  methods  of  farm- 
ing. In  previous  centuries  half  the  cultivated  land  was  always 
lying  fallow  ;  now  the  system  of  rotation  of  crops  made  most  of 
this  land  productive  every  year.  For  this  purpose  turnips  and 
other  root  crops  were  widely  grown  about  the  middle  of  the 
century,  foreign  grasses,  such  as  clover,  were  imported,  and 
methods  of  fertilization  were  improved.  As  the  century  ad- 
vanced, farming  became  so  important  that  the  richer  land- 
owners bought  up  the  smaller  holdings  until  comparatively  few 
"yeomen"  were  left.  Finally,  the  needs  of  the  large  farms  led 
to  the  introduction  of  labor-saving  devices  —  such  as  machine 
drills  for  planting,  and  thrashing  machines,  run  by  horse  power. 
Up  to  the  eighteenth  century  British  manufactures  were  re- 
stricted by  dependence  on  hand  labor,  and  by  the  high  cost  of 

516.  Intro-  iron,  which  was  mined  by  manual  labor  and  smelted 
steam^°^  with  charcoal  "at  great  expense;  but  after  1740  new 
power  methods  in  mining  and  manufacturing  rapidly  brought 

about  great  industrial  changes.  During  this  century  the  steam 
engine  made  its  appearance  as  a  factor  in  industry.  A  rude 
engine  in  which  steam  was  employed  to  create  a  vacuum 
behind  the  piston,  which  was  then  pushed  in  by  atmospheric 
pressure,  was  invented   by  Newcomen  in  1705  and  used  for 

442 


l.IFH    AM)    MANNKHS    IN    i:ii;il  IKKN  111    CKNTURY      443 

]inmping  water  from  mines.  The  modern  steam  engine  was 
due  to  the  invention  of  Watt,  who,  between  1760  and  17H4, 
worked  out  the  reciprocal  steam  engine  in  virtually  its  present 
form.  Even  so,  machinery  would  have  been  but  sparingly  used 
had  not  the  price  of  iron  been  brought  down  by  the  use  of  coke 
instead  of  charcoal  for  sinelting  iron  (1750)  and  by  the  inven- 
tion of  improved  processes  of  rolling  iron  by  machinery  (1784). 

Among  the  earliest  mechanical  inventions  was  that  of 
improved  machinery  for  knitting  stockings,  the  chief  industry 
in  Nottingham  (1758).  ^More  important  still  were  new  517  power 
devices  for  spinning  thread  of  flax  and  wool.  Hitherto  machinery 
all  thread  in  England  was  made  by  the  spinning  wheel,  and 
the  husband  wove  into  cloth  at  his  loom  the  thread  which  his 
wife  spun.  The  linen-thread  industry  on  a  large  scale  began 
at  I'aisley  in  1721',  but  the  greatest  benefactor  to  this  industry 
w;i,s  Hargreaves,  who  in  1764  invented  a  machine  for  laying 
the  fibers  of  flax  or  wool  or  cotton  in  parallel  directions ;  and 
by  a  second  invention  (the  "  spinning  jenny,"  1772)  made  it 
possible  for  a  single  spinning  wheel  to  produce  several  threads 
at  once.  Twelve  years  later  Arkwright  and  Crompton  devel- 
oped from  Hargreaves's  idea  the  modern  "  spinning  mule," 
driven  by  water  power.  The  next  stej)  forward  was  taken 
when  Cartwright  invented  a  power  loom,  1785,  by  means  of 
which  the  threads  spun  in  Crorapton's  machine  could  be  made 
into  cloth  at  a  comparatively  rapid  rate. 

With  the  growth  of  manufactures  came  the  need  of  Ix^tter 
means  of  transportation.  Rough  and  muddy  roads,  where 
pack  horses  had  to  pick  their  way  with  care,  and  carts  5^3  Roads 
came  to  grief  every  few  miles,  were  changed  into  fairly  and  canals 
smooth  "turnpike"  roads,  or  hard-surfaced  tf)ll  roads  built  by 
j)rivate  capital,  the  fees  from  which  were  spent  jiartly  in  im- 
proving the  condition  of  the  roadbed.  Between  17«i()anil  1771. 
I'arliament  passed  four  hundred  and  fifty-two  a(;ts  for  the 
improvement  of  roads  alone.     In  the  coal  fields,  tramways  for 


'•../"'\'>/"»^j,,^Southami)ton 

!■< 

''^      ^Cr  i^l.    OF  WIGHT 

L    7"^   H      CHANNEL 


444 


MFK    AND    MANNKI^S    IN    KICIirKKNTII    CKNTrin'      44') 


the  wagons  fiinvinj^  coal  to  tho  ships  t^ave  the  first  suggestion 
of  the  nKKlerii  railway;  and  in  all  tho  nianufa<-tiMint:  districts 
canals  were  constructed  as  a  means  of  getting  heavy  gooils  and 
niachiiuMV  to  and  from  the  mills. 

B 


Skdan  Chairs.  17.00. 
From  the  paiuting  by  W.  F.  Yeames. 

The  daily  life  of  Englishmen  in  this  material  age  was  not  as 
a  whole  uplifting.       In  the  country  the  landowners,  from  peer 
to  yeoman,  were  given  to  coarse  ami    brutal   jjleasures.    5^9    Rural 
Hunting  and  fishing  by  day,  gambling  and  drinking  by  ^i^e 

night,  were  the  chief  employments  of  those  who  could  afford 
them.  The  county  squire,  as  a  general  thing,  m-ver  looked 
into  a  book,  unless  it  were  a  book  of  law.  Swearing  and  vul- 
garity sea.soned  much  of  the  conversation.  Taste  was  "con- 
spicuous by  its  absence."  The  less  frequented  roads  were 
wretched  —  (piagmires  alternating  with  stretches  of  sand. 
Highwaymen  haunted  the  main  traveled  roads.  Communi- 
cation between  different  distri<;ts  was  theref(jr«'  restricted,  and 
"provincialism  "  in  thought  and  manners  wa,s  the  result. 

In  the  cities  concentration  of  wealth  and  intelligence  some- 
what nuidified  these  cf)nditions.     The  growing  prosperity    jgo    Urban 
of   the    nut  ion    is   shown    by   the    fact    that    the   govern-  life 


446 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


ment,  which  in  1694  paid  8  per  cent  for  its  loans,  found 
plenty  of  credit  at  3  per  cent  in  1750.  After  Clive's  exploits 
in  India,  officials  of  the  East  India  Company  returned 
to  England  fabulously  rich  (Clive  himself  received  a  present 
of  £250,000  from  one  prince),  bought  their  way  into  society, 
and,  in  the  words  of  Chatham,  "forced  their  Avay  into 
Parliament  by  such  a  torrent  of  corruption  as  no  hereditary 
fortune  could  resist."     Although  civic  activity  was  low,  and 


Ranelagh  Gardens,  1742-lSOo. 
From  an  old  priut. 

even  London  lacked  paved  streets,  clean  sidewalks,  effective 
street  lights,  pure  water,  and  adequate  sewers,  yet  private 
houses  were  built  with  some  pretense  to  luxury  if  not  beauty. 
Theaters,  pleasure  gardens  like  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall,  bull 
baiting,  cockfighting,  and  prize  fights  were  the  amusements  of 
the  well-to-do  citizen. 

The  condition  of  the  lower  classes  was  very  Avretched.     "  The 

521    Pov-      habit  of  gin  drinking  —  the  master  curse  of  English  life, 

erty  and        to  which  most  of  the  crime  and  an  immense  portion  of 

the  misery  of  the  nation  may  be  ascribed  — ...  became 


LIFK    AM)   MANNERS    IX    EIGHTEENTH    CENTrKY      447 

for  the  first  time  a  national  vice  in  the  early  Hanove-  Lecky,  Eng- 

rian  period."     Drunkenness  led  to  poverty,  and  tlien  to     £inhiep„th 

robbery    and    murder.      High    license    laws    could    not     Century,  J. 

be   enforced,   and   low   license    laws    failed    to    restrict 

the   sale  of   liquors.     Gangs  of   ruffians  infested  the  streets 

at  night,  and  the  })revailing  system  of  policing  was  wholly 

ineffective  to  keep  order.      Jack  Sheppard,  Jonathan   Wild, 

and  Dick  Turpiu,  all  famous  thieves,  were  the  popular  heroes 

of  the  lowest  classes.     So  ignorant  were  the  masses  that  when 

Parliament  decreed  that  September  3, 1752,  should  be  reckoned 

as  September  14  in  order  to  correct  an  error  which  had  grown 

up  in  the  calendar,*  mobs  gathered  about  the  Parliament  houses, 

clamoring,  "  Give  us  our  eleven  days  I ''  —  for  they  believed 

that  they  had  someho.v  been  robbed  of  eleven  days'  pay. 

When  a  malefactor  fell  into  the  clutches  of  the  law,  his  fate 

was  indescribably  wretched.    Confined  in  a  filthy,  unventilatod, 

and  unwarmed  cell,  prevented  from   taking  exercise  or      522    pun- 

emploving  his  body  and  mind  in  any  useful  way,  con-     ishment  of 
1      .^       n  J  J  ~  crime 

sorting  at  times  with  sick  or  demented  companions  m 
misery,  he  lost  all  hope  and  all  desire  for  reformation. 
Moreover,  the  same  treatment  was  meted  out  to  prisoners 
for  debt,  although  innocent  of  crime,  and  to  the  most  hard- 
ened criminals.  Hanging  was  the  penalty  for  one  hundred 
and- sixty  different  offenses,  and  more  horrible  punishments 
were  inflictfd  for  such  offen.ses  as  treason.  Before  the  .\meri- 
can  Rev(.luti(jn.  numbers  of  criminals  were  transported  to  the 
American  colonies,  to  be  sold  into  forced  labor  for  a  term 
of  years:  but  after  that  time  prison  hulks  and  ix-niteniianes 
were  established,  where  convicts  might  be  kept  at  work. 

1  The  Jiili.'iii  ralfiidar,  in  use  aftpr  4<)  B.r.,  as.sumi-<l  tlit>  yoar  ti>  be  some 
minutes  ioiitr.r  tliaii  it  r.ally  is  In  l.'..s-2  Pope  GrfK'or>-  XIII.  r.-i-titinl  tli.-  ten 
days'  erri.r  in  ri'.k<>nini,'  wliicli  lia<i  rcsnlt«><l  sint-e  the  yt-ar  .'fi'i,  an.l  niir<Hln<-«'<l 
into  all  Catholic  countrii-s  tin-  lal.-n.lar  now  in  us.-;  hut  Protestant  Kii^land 
refuse.!  to  make  the  change,  and  hy  175J  the  difTefeiice  between  fomin.ntal 
and  British  chronoloRj'  w;u»  eleven  days. 


448 


STRUGGLE    FOR   EMPIRE 


eratiire 


The  literature  of  the  period  reflected  the  prevailing  social 

conditions.     The  government  no  longer  encouraged  writers  of 

high   quality    by    gifts   of    public   ofRce   and    pensions. 

d<vO.      1116 

state  of  lit-    Individual  noblemen  still  posed  as  patrons  of  letters,  but 
the  writers  who  tried  to  follow  in  the  steps  of  Pope  and 
Addison  mostly  starved  in  Grub  Street  (the  London  center  for 
poverty-stricken  authors). 

About  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  modern  English  novel 
was  created  by  the  genius  of  Samuel  Richardson  (author  of 
Pamela  and  Clarissa  Harlon-e)  and  Henry  Fielding  (author  of 
Tom  Jones  and  Joseph  Andreics).  The  middle  classes,  which 
cared  little  for  classic  literary  forms,  were  delighted  with 
these  coarse  but  strong  and  lifelike  pictures  of  the  world  in 
which  they  lived,  and  the  reading  habit  rapidly  increased. 
Newspapers,  which  since  the  first  number  of  the  Daihj  Cour- 
--^  ant  (1702)  and  Defoe's  Re- 

v  -  vieio    of  the    State    of    the 

English  Nation  (1704)  had 
maintained  a  struggling  ex- 
istence, now  had  multitudes 
of  readers.  In  1724  there 
were  in  England  but  three 
daily  journals ;  in  1790  there 
were  ten  times  that  number 
in  London  alone,  including 
the  Mo r n ing  Chronicle 
(1770),  the  3Iorning  Post 
(1772),  the  Morning  Herald 
(1780),  and  the  Times  (1788). 
Between  these  two  dates,  the  tradition  of  the  Tatler  and  the 

,„,    ,  ,         Spectator  was  ke))t  uij  by  the  Rambler  and  the  Idler,  the 
524    John-        ^  i        i      j 

son  and  the    work  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1700-1784).     This  power- 
ful thinker  and  writer  was  the  last  of  the  trio  of  liter- 
ary dictators  which  also  included  Dryden  and  Pope.     Migrat- 


Samuel  Johnson. 
From  the  portrait  by  Joshua  Reynolds. 


Club 


LIFE    ANI>    MANNKHS    IN    KIGHlKENrH    CENTURY      449 

ing  from  Lichfield  to  London  at  a  time  when  the  system  of 
government  patronage  for  authors  had  been  abolished  by  Wal- 
pole,  .Johnson  was  the  first  great  author  to  make  literature 
strictly  self-supporting.  Besides  the  Rambler  and  Idler  he  wrote 
poems,  political  pamphlets,  essays,  a  romance,  a  tragedy;  he 
compiled  the  first  complete  and  authoritative  dictionary  of  the 
English  language;  but  he  was  still  more  celebrated  for  his 
brilliant  conversation,  when  in  the  celebrated  "Club"  he  dis- 
coursed on  literature,  manners,  and  morals.  In  this  Club  were 
Kurke,  statesman ;  Goldsmith,  novelist  and  dramatist ;  Gar- 
rick,  the  first  great  Shakespearean  actor;  Boswell,  Johnson's 
biographer;  iSheridan,  dramatist  and  orator;  and  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  the  foremost  painter  of  the  age. 

Since  the  days  of  Van  Dyck,  no  great  artist  had  apj^eared 
in  England.  As  the  first  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Painters  (17<>8)  Reynolds  created  a  new  school  of  paint-  525  Paint- 
ing and  of  art  criticism,  his  work  being  marked  by  i°g 
dignity,  variety,  and  richness  of  coloring.  Both  Reynolds  and 
his  contemporary  Gainsborough  (17l'7-1788)  were  especially 
noted  for  portraits.  Of  the  two,  Gainslx)rough  was  the  more 
noted  for  delicacy  and  suggestive  power.  Hogarth  (lGi>7- 
17f>4)  was  an  artist  of  very  different  staiu}),  who  devoted  his 
wonderful  powers  of  caricature  to  the  criticism  of  contem- 
porary manners,  the  satirizing  of  follies,  and  the  teaching  of 

moral  h'ssons.      To  his  graphic  drawings  we  owe  our  inti-  ,      . 

■^      '  ^  Lamb, 

mate  knowledge  of  many  phases  of  life  in  the  cightci'iith  Ofnius 

century.      No  other  artist  ever  succeeded  in  cr()wding  so     "•      "^"'^ 
many  signifii-ant  details  into  a  single  picture.      '-Other  pic- 
tures we  look  at.  —  his  prints  we  read  I  " 

Italian  opera,  introduced  into  England  after  tlie  Restoration, 
was  the  most  faslijoiuible  amusement  during  tht-  latter  part  of 
the  century.      Handel,  a  (ierman  naturaliz«'(l  in  England,       526     The 
tomjiosfd    many   operas.       Al)out    17'J8,    when  (Jay   had  suge 

partly  d<'>troyf(l   the    i)ublic    tiuste    for   opera    l)y  writing    his 


460  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRP: 

burlesque  Beggar^s   Opera  (in  which   thieves  and   cutthroats 

were  the  chief  characters),  Handel  turned  to  the  production  of 

oratorios.      His  Messiah,  written  in   twenty-three   days,  has 

made  his  name  immortal. 

By  the   middle  of  the  century,  the  legitimate  drama  again 

became  popular,  under  the  impetus  given  by  David  Garrick 

(1717-1779).     Hitherto  tragic   acting   had   been    stilted    and 

conventional,    and    comic    acting    was    artificial    and    silly ; 

Garrick  introduced  a  more  realistic  type  of  acting,  which  was 

made  still  more  effective   by  attention  to  historic   details  in 

scenery  and  costume.     Through  him  interest  in  Shakespeare's 

plays  was  revived,  and  the  irablic  taste  was  improved.     The 

success  of  Goldsmith's  romantic  and  mirthful  comedies  {She 

Stoops  to  Conquer,  Tlie  School  for  Scandal)  is  a  proof  of  this 

improvement. 

Several    renowned  historical   writers  of  this   period,  Hume, 

Gibbon,  and  Smith,  are  notable  chiefly   for  their   originality 

527.  His-      and  force  of  thought.     David  Hume  (1711-1776)  was  a 

tory  and        c^Hc  of  the  prevailing  religious  beliefs,  and  his  Inquiry 
political  '-  o         o  1        .• 

science  into  the  Principles  of  Morals  set  forth  a  new  explanation 

of  morality,  namely,  that  it  is  based  upon  the  usefulness  of 
actions  instead  of  upon  the  laws  of  God.  This  doctrine  was 
later  elaborated  by  his  friend  Jeremy  Bentham  (1748-1832) 
under  the  name  of  "  utilitarian  philosophy."  Hume  was  also 
the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  historical  writing  {History  of 
England,  1762)  distinguished  by  the  attempt  to  explain  as  well 
as  to  recount  the  facts  of  history.  Hume's  whole  work,  how- 
ever, was  tinged  by  his  own  personal  beliefs.  Edward  Gibbon 
(1737-1794),  author  of  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, not  only  had  Hume's  critical  and  philosophical  temper, 
but  he  also  had  a  vivid  imagination,  a  noble  style,  and  a  wide 
grasp  of  historical  materials.  Adam  Smith  (1723-1790),  by 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  the  Causes  of  the  Wealth  of 
Nations,  showed  the  weakness  of  the  existing  theories  of  politi- 


l.IFK    AND    MANNKHS    IN    KIGIITHKNTH    CKN'nUV      4'>1 


cal  economy,  and  by  his  attacks  on  nionopulies  and  trade  re- 
strictions hecanie  the  founder  of  the  modern  free  trade  tlieory. 
After  tlie  triumph  of  Anglicanism  at  the  lu-vohition,  tlie 
religious  tone  of  the  nation  suffered  a  decline.  Clergymen  ot 
the  lower  grade  gambled,  drank,  and  swore ;  those  of  528.  Wes 
tiner  tiber  often  drifted  into  unbelief.     Formalism  took  lL!ou*s 

t   the  place  of   piety,  and  religious  services  were  lifeless,  revival 

and  called  out  few  attendants.  In  1738  John  Wesley  began 
his  work  of  reviving  and  purifying  the  religious  life  of  the 
masses.  At  first  he  retained  his  connection  with  the  estab- 
lished church,  but  later  organized  an  independent  sect,  the 
Wesleyans  or  ^lethodists.  As  the  apostle  of  an  ardent  per- 
sonal Christianity  he  traversed  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
preaching  on  open  commons  and  city  squares  more  than  forty 
thousand  sermons  to  vast  gatherings  of  factory  workers, 
artisans,  and  day-laborers.  With  him  were  associated  his 
brother  Charles,  a  writer  of  hymns,  and  the  eloquent  George 
Whitetield,  whose  work  was  scarcely  less  important.  One  effect 
of  this  movement  was  to  arouse  the  Church  of  England  to  a 

keener    realization   of    its   mission   and   its 

obligations. 


The  prevailing  note  in  English  life  dur- 
ing the  eighteenth  century  was  materialism. 
Agriculture  and  the  manufacturing  in-  529 
dustries  took  great  strides.  Society, 
art,  religion,  education,  amusements,  were 
all  "of  the  earth,  earthy."  This  state  of 
things  was  in  some  degree  due  to  the  reac- 
tion from  the  strenuous  period  of  the  great 
Revolution,  in  some  degree  to  the  condition 
of  court  and  government  under  the  German 
inonarchs.  Nevertheless,  Johnson's  sturdy 
morality,  Wesley's  warm  religious  enthusi- 


Sum- 
mary 


452 


STRUGGLK   FOR  EMPIRE 


asm,  Burke's  serious  political  studies,  Hogarth's  castigation  of 
vice,  Fielding's  breezy  picture  of  human  life,  which  he  found 
superficial  and  faulty,  but  sound  at  the  core,  —  all  these  gave 
promise  of  higher  ideals  and  a  finer  national  life  in  the  days 
to  come. 

TOPICS 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


(1)  How  did  the  development  of  manufactures  raise  the  price  of 
farm  products?  (2)  What  effect  did  the  massing  of  the  land 
into  large  instead  of  small  farms  have  upon  the  independence  of 
voters  ?  (3)  In  the  United  States,  are  small  landholders  relatively 
numerous  or  few  ?  (4)  In  what  way  would  the  growth  of  manu- 
factures in  England  react  on  her  commerce  ?  (5)  The  origin  of 
the  word  "  nabob,"  and  the  meaning  which  it  acquired  after  about 
1770.  (0)  Describe  the  system  of  patronage  for  men  of  letters, 
as  it  existed  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.  (7)  What  conditions 
tended  to  destroy  this  system  ?     (8)   Description  of  Watt's  engine. 

(0)  Vauxhall.  (10)  Johnson's  letter  to  Chesterfield  regarding 
patronage  of  men  of  letters.  (11)  A  conversation  at  the  Club. 
(12)  Some  anecdotes  about  Goldsmith.  (13)  An  account  of  a  fox 
hunt.  (14)  London  street  life.  (15)  The  Fleet  Prison  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  (16)  Wliitefield  in  America.  (17)  Charles 
Wesley's  hymns.  (18)  Gibbon's  autobiography.  (19)  Character 
and  service  of  James  Boswell.     (20)  Career  of  a  highwayman. 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

Bright,  History  of  England,  III.  00,3-964,  987,  1012-1017,  1150- 
1151;  Gardiner,  Student's  History,  720,  745-746,  813-818;  Ran- 
some,  Advanced  History,  761-764,  850-853  ;  Green,  Short  History, 
735-741,  791-797  ;  History  of  the  English  People,  bk.  ix.  ch.  iii.  ; 
Gibbins,  Industrial  History,  108-170  ;  Cheyney,  Introduction  to 
Industrial  History,  ch.  vii.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England, 
bk.  ix.  ch.  iii.  ;  Mahon,  History  of  England,  chs.  Ix.  Ixx.  ;  Lecky, 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  chs.  iii.-vii.  ix.  ;  Sydney,  Eng- 
land and  the  English  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  ;  Stephen.  English 
Thotight  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  ;  Wright,  Caricature  History 
of  the  Georges,  chs.  iii.  vii.  xiv.  ;  Ashton,  Social  Life  in  the  Beign 
of  Qrieen  Anne  ;  Thackeray,  The  Four  Georges,  —  English  Htimor- 
ists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  ;  Toynbee,  The  Industrial  Bevolu- 
tion  ;  Taylor,  The  Factory  System  and  Factory  Acts,  ch.  i, ;  Gower, 


IJKK    AM)    MA.NNKKS    IN    K H; IITKKNTII    CKNTl'UV      4o3 


Sir  Joshua  linjnolds;  Macaulay,  Essays  ('-Life  of  Joliusoii," 
"(Hivt-r  GoUlsmitli,"  "  Mailaint-  D'Arblay");  Traill,  Suci'il  Entj- 
Uiitil.  ch.  xviii.  ;  Siu'll,  Weshy  and  Mt-tftodism.  See  New  England 
History  l\\uhers'  Association,  Syllabus,  261-263. 

Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  91,  100,  102;  Kendall,    Sources 
Source-Book,  ch.  xvii. ;  Goldsmith.  Citizen  of  the  World ;  Youn*:, 
A  ToicH  in  Ireland,  177.6-1779 ;  Johnson,  Essays,  passim  ;  Boswell, 
Life  of  Johnson. 

Besant  and  Rice,  TTie  Chaplain  of  the  Fleet ;  Charles,  Diary  of 
Mrs.  Kitty  Trecelyan  ;  Dickens,  Bariuihy  Rudye ;  P^liot,  Adam 
Bide  ;  Moore,  The  Jessamy  Bride  ;  Frances  D'Arblay,  Evelina  ; 
Ritchie,  Miss  Anyel;  Scott,  St.  Bonan's  Well;  Tarkington,  Mon- 
sieur Beaucaire. 


niufltrative 
works 


454 


CHAPTER   XXXH. 
PERIOD   OF   THE    NAPOLEONIC    WARS   (1789-1815) 

The  natural  development  of  British  government  and  society 
was  now  interrupted  by  a  revolutionary  movement  which  began 
in  France  in  1789,  by  degiees  involved  every  European  _^^ 

state,  and  for  twenty-two  years  absorbed  all  the  energies  French 

of  Great  Britain.  Under  the  Bourbon  monarchs,  the  ^^°  ^  ^°^ 
power  of  France  had  steadily  declined  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury :  her  wealth  was  drained  away  in  disastrous  wars,  while 
trade  and  industry  were  crippled  by  monopolies  and  restrict- 
ive laws.  By  1789  the  annual  expenses  of  the  state  were 
4().0W.0(1()  francs  (.S8,000,0<W)  more  than  its  income.  In  May 
of  that  year  the  members  of  the  States-general,  summoned  to 
suggest  measures  to  stave  off  national  bankruptcy,  assumed 
the  right  to  formulate  a  new  constitution  for  the  nation ; 
feudal  rights  and  privileges  were  soon  abolished :  and  a 
limited  monarchy  was  created.  This  was  not  accomplished, 
however,  without  rioting,  cruelty,  and  bloodshed. 

At   first    the    Revolution    met    with    favor    among    ilritish 

statesmen,  but  the  excesses  of  its  leaders  soon  caused  a  change 

of  sentiment.     Edmund  Burke,  in  his  Rejfcctious  on  tin-  531.   Effect 

lierobition    hi    France    (1790),    earlv    foretold   the    utter   o^theRevo- 

"     ,      -  lution  upon 

ruin  of  the  French  social  .system  and  the  establishment  England 
of  a  military  despotism  upon  its  ruins  ;  but  the  effect  of  this 
warning  was  more  than  counterbalanced  by  Thomas  Paine's 
reply  entitled  'Ilif  /iii/ht.s  of  ^fan.  This  jamphlet,  of  which 
a  million  and  a  half  copies  were  sold,  roused  in  Great  Britain 
a  spirit  akin  to  that  in  France. 

455 


456  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

Societies  were  formed   to   promote  reforms   in   the  British 

constitution,  and  the  government,  terrified  at  the  spirit  which 

was  manifested,  passed  laws  forbidding  seditious  meetings  and 

Bright,  His-  even  suspending  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act.     "  There  was 

tonj  oj  Eng-  ^]yy^^  formed  a  new  Tory  party,  having  for  its  watchword 

land,  III.  J    i        J7  o 

1161  '  The  old  Constitution,'  refusing  to  listen  to  any  sound  of 

reform  or  change,  regarding  every  measure  in  a  popular 
direction  as  a  preliminary  to  popular  excesses.  ...  At  the 
head  of  this  party  Pitt,  of  late  so  liberal,  placed  himself, 
supported  by  Burke,  the  late  Whig  leader."  The  leaders  of 
the  Whig,  or  pro-French  party,  were  Fox  and  Grey. 

Late  in  1792,  the  French  abolished  their  constitutional 
monarchy  and  established  a  republic,  at  the  same  time  declar- 
ing that  they  would  "  grant  fraternity  and  assistance  to 
of  the  war  all  people  who  wished  to  recover  their  liberty."  This 
with  France  g^^^JQ^  convinced  most  English  statesmen  that  the  exist- 
ing government  in  France  was  a  menace  to  law  and  order 
everywhere;  and  when  the  French  followed  up  their  procla- 
mation by  forcibly  changing  the  Austrian  Netherlands  into  a 
republic,  and  threatening  to  invade  Holland  (a  state  with 
which  England  had  a  treaty  of  protection  and  alliance),  Pitt 
began  to  prepare  for  war.  December  31,  1792,  the  British 
Cabinet  declared  that  it  would  "  never  see  with  indifEerence  that 
France  should  make  herself  directly  or  indirectly  sovereign  of 
the  Low  Countries."  The  French  revolutionary  leaders,  how- 
ever, did  not  wait  to  be  attacked.  After  putting  to  death  their 
dethroned  monarch,  Louis  XVI.,  they  declared  war  against 
both  England  and  Holland  in  February,  1793.  Great  Britain, 
Spain,  Holland,  Austria,  and  Prussia  at  once  organized  the  first 
of  six  great  European  coalitions  against  France. 

This  first  war  lasted  from  1793  to  1803,  during  which  period 
533.  First  the  aim  of  Great  Britain  was  to  overthrow  the  danger- 
th"F*^°^h  ^^^  monster  of  French  Republicanism,  and  to  replace 
wars  the  Bourbons  upon  the  throne  of  France.      During  the 


PERIOD   OF   THE   NAPOLEONIC    WARS    (ITt^O-lSlO)       457 


"  Reii^n  of  Terror "  inaugurated  in  France  by  Danton  and 
Robespierre  (17'.).'>-1704),  the  war  was  c-ontined  to  a  limited 
area  ;  but  after  the  restoration 
of  order  under  a  new  govern- 
ment, called  the  Directory,  in 
1795,  the  military  genius  and 
ambition  of  Napoleon  Kona- 
l)arte  led  to  more  extended  op- 
erations. 

Pitt's  policy  throughout  the 
war  was  to  subsidize  the  foreign 
(iermau  princes  that  bore  the 
brunt  of  the  fighting  in  Europe, 
while  he  used  Great  Britain's 
naval  power  to  destroy  the  com- 
mercial marine  and  the  navy  of 
Frani-e,  and  to  seize  her  few  re- 
maining colonies.  At  the  same 
time,  to  ]jrevent  the  United 
States  from  getting  the  carrying  trade  between  France  and 
her  colonies,  he  revived  the  Rule  of  1750,  which  forbade  neu- 
tral states  to  enjoy  in  time  of  war  a  trade  which  liad  been 
closed  to  them  in  time  of  peace. 

The  Directory  early  secured  alliances  with  Spain  and  with 
Holland,  and  organized  a  large  allied  fleet  to  gain  control  of  the 
( 'hannel.     Before  this  could  be  done,  Great  Britain  seized    ^^^    ^ 
Holland's  colony  at  the  Cape  of  (iood  Hope  (1795),  thus    naval  oper 
securing  ht-r  route  to  the  East ;  and  in  February,  1797, 
Admirals  Jervis  and  Nelson,  with  only  15  vessels,  defeated  the 
French  and  Spanish  fleets  of  27  vessels  off  Cape  St.  Vincent, 
and  in  October  .Vdmiral   Duncan  defeated  the  Dutch  in  the 
battle  of  Camperdown.     Thus  tlie  superiority  on  the  sea  fell 
to  Great  Britain  from  the  very  Hrst ;  but  France,  nevertheless, 
ventured  an  attack  upon  British  power  in  the  East.     In  1798 


Napoleon. 
From  a  paintiug  by  Paul  Dclaroche. 


458 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


a  French  fleet  under  General  Napoleon  Bonaparte  sailed  from 
Toulon  with  36,000  soldiers.  Avoiding  the  patrol  which  Nelson 
maintained  in  the  middle  Mediterranean,  it  secured  a  naval 
base  by  wresting  Malta  from  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  after  a 
four  days'  siege,  and  then  proceeded  to  Egypt. 

While    Napoleon    was    conquering    Egypt,    as    a    base   for 

operations  against  India,  Nelson  attacked  and  destroyed  the 

635.  Battle  French  fleet  at  anchor  in  Aboukir  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the 

of  the  Nile     j^-jg   Q^  August  1,  1798.     In  this  battle  Nelson  proved 
(Aug.  1,  '  =^  '  '■ 

1798;  his  genius  as  a  naval  strategist.     Finding  the  vessels  of 

the  French  fleet  swinging  at  anchor  near  a  shallow  coast,  he 
reasoned   that   there   must   be   deep  water  at   least  a  cable's 

length   on   all    sides    of 
them.    He  therefore  sent 
several    vessels   into  ac- 
tion on  the  land  side  of 
the  French  column,  while 
he,  with  others,  took  po- 
sition   on    the    seaward 
side.     Thus  each  French 
vessel  near  the  head  of 
the  line  was  attacked  by 
two  others,  and  the  ships 
to  leeward  could  not  easily  come  to  their  assistance.     These 
in  their  turn  were  attacked  by  fire  from  both  sides,  and  of 
the  entire  French  fleet  only  two  vessels  escaped  destruction. 
This  battle  settled   the   destiny   of   the  East,  for   Napoleon 
abandoned  his  scheme  of  conquest,  left  his  army  in  Egypt,  and 
returned   to  France,     Later,   Great  Britain  easily  conquered 
Egypt,  and  also  captured  Malta,  thus  becoming  supreme  in 
the  Mediterranean. 

In  this  war  Great  Britain  again  aroused  antagonism  by  ex- 
ercising the  "right  of  search"  upon  the  high  seas,  in  order  to 
seize  all  goods  bound  from  French  colonies  to  France,  and 


„  -rr.SrSa"''"'  '■.?"^SC\^  TWO  BRITISH  SHIPS 
^, -^trBl^'                  '•■•    •■'     1            AGROUND 

N                             .■•■<t5^          ..  ■■■         ^ 

k                  ABOUKIR  1.               /       V   « 

—          .■••    •■    ■  ^<^-^;*^ 

■;     c--^    ^%, 

': 

'■■■■■      ^^WV^ft 
■                   ..■■"■                                :                   WV> 

■"7                      Shallow      '"\        ^^-^% 

L>#AB0UKIR                 »ater             ••.....          >»    % 

/   CASTLE                                                                                         "^ 

V              ABOUKIR         b(a"Y 

Battle  of  the  Nile. 


PERIOD    OF    TMi:    NA1'<  .J.KoNK  •    WARS    (1789-1815)       459 

(n  capture  provisions,  wliich  slie  declared  to  ho  contrabaml  of 

war.    In  1S01  tin"  czar  ol  lius.sia  leagiu'd  with  Triissia,  Sweden, 

and  Denmark  to  resist  by  force  any  search  of  vessels       536    The 

tivinj::  i^  neutral  fla<j.     To  break  this  formidable  combi-  second 

*    .  ,  armed 

nation,  Great  Britain   determined    to   attack    Denmark,    neutrality" 

Nelson's  destruction  of  the  batteries  defending  Copenhagen  in 
April,  1S(U.  and  his  threat  to  bombard  the  capital  compelled 
the  Danish  government  to  abandon  its  allies,  and  the  acces- 
sion of  a  new  czar  hostile  to  Napoleon  caused  the  collapse  of 
the  policy  of  armed  neutrality. 

^feanwhile  the  surrender  of  the  French  army  stranded  in 
Egypt,  and  the  capture  of  >[alta,  led  to  negotiations  for  peace, 
and  the  treaty  of  Amiens,  signed  in  April,  1802,  put  an 

OOi •     f 6&CC 

end  to  the  vrar.     Great  Britain  agreed  to  abandon    the      of  Amiens 

attempt  to  restore  the  l^ourbon  monarchy  in  France,  *' to  U802) 

drop  the  title  of  king  of  France  from  the  official  style  of  the 

Kiiglish  monarch,"  and  to  restore  various  conquered   French 

territories.     She  was  also  to  restore  the  island  of  Malta  to  the 

Knights  of  St.  John  (to  whom  it  formerly  belonged),  under  the 

j)rotection  of  the  czar  of  Russia.      France   agreed  to  refrain 

from  aggressions  upon  other  states. 

Neither  party  to  this  treaty  of  Amiens  kept  its  word.     The 

power  of  Napoleon,  now  First  Consul  of  France,  dei)ended  upon 

his  military  jirestige.     "France  needs  war,"  he  said  to  638  Second 

his  council  in  1  SOL';  ,  .  .  "  I  shall  hn^k  on  each  conclusion        ''ar  with 

France 
of  i>eace  as  simply  a  sliort  armistice."     Contrary  to  his   (1803  1814. 

agreement  he  anne.xed  Piedmont  and  tlie  island  of  Elba,  reor- 
ganized the  government  of  Switzerland  by  force,  and  closed 
these  countries  to  English  tra<le.  He  enlarged  the  French 
navy,  and  sent  civil  engineers  and  officers  to  study  the  mili- 
tary situation  in  England  and  to  procure  maj)s  of  harbors  and 
l)lans  of  fortifications.  At  the  same  time  he  arrogantly 
demanded  that  the  British  government  should  suppress  all 
newspapers  which  dared  t»>  criticise  his  conduct. 
walkkk's  e.no.  hist.  —  28 


460 


STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 


111  the  light  of  these  actions,  Great  Britain  refused  to  give 
up  jNIalta,  since  it  was  certain  to  be  seized  by  Napoleon,  and  on 
May  10,  1803,  she  declared  war  upon  France.  Even  before  this 
declaration,  the  British  seized  two  French  merchant  vessels, 
and  Xapoleon,  in  retaliation,  caused  the  arrest  of  about  12,000 
English  travelers  and  merchants  in  France.  This  second  war 
lasted  from  1803  to  1814.  After  the  first  year  of  the  war 
Napoleon  became  emperor  of  the  French,  and  deliberately  set 
to  work  to  extend  his  sway  over  more  and  more  territory. 

The  first  important  operation  was  the  massing  of  130,000 

men  at  Boulogne,  opposite  the  coast  of  England,  for  the  purpose 

of  invading  and  conquering  the  island  (1804).     Spain  was 

Boulogne       bullied  into  lending  the  assistance  of  her  fleet;  transports 

armamen       ■^ere  provided  in  large  numbers,  and  in  the  arsenals  and 

shipyards  of  Brest,  Cadiz,  and  Toulon  war  ships  were  built  to 

convoy  them  across  the  Channel.     To  meet  this  danger  Pitt 

negotiated  a  coalition 
with  Russia  in  April 
and  with  Austria  in 
August.  These  gov- 
ernments were  to  at- 
tack Napoleon  with 
enormous  armies,  of 
which  Great  Britain 
was  to  bear  a  large 
pcu'tion  of  the  cost, 
while  with  her  fleet 
she  blockaded  the 
ports  of  France  and 
Spain. 

In    January,   1805,  Admiral    Villeneuve   escaped  from  the 
540.  Battle   harbor  of  Toulon  with  one  division  of  the  allied  fleet, 

of  Trafal-       ^yg^g  ioined  by  a   second  at  Cadiz,  lured  Nelson  across 

gar  (Jan.,  ■'  •'  ' 

1805)  the  Atlantic  to  defend  the  West  Indies,  and  hurried  back 


"  I  SAY,  Little  Boney,  why  don't  you 

COME   OUT?  " 

From  a  caricature  of  the  Boulogne  armament, 
August  2,  1803. 


I'KKlol)   OF   THE    NAl'oLKoNIC    WAliS    (17S!»-l,sio)      4»51 


to  protect  the  crossing  of  the  Boulogne  aiiny.  He  fell  in  with 
a  small  Heet  lunler  Sir  Robert  C'aliler,  suffered  sonu^  damage, 
and  stopiH'd  at  Vigo  for  repairs  and  supplies  long  enough  for 
Ni'lsitii  to  return  and  gather  a  strong  fleet. 

Villeneuve  then  retired  to  Cadiz,  but  on  October  21  sailed 
out  with  a  fleet  of  33  ships  of  the  line  to  meet  Nelson  with  27 
vessels.  The  allied  fleet 
was  deployed  iu  a  long 
single  line  of  battle. 
Nelson  divided  his 
forces,  and  struck  this 
line  at  two  different 
places  sinuiltaneously, 
thus  pii'venting  its 
united  action,  utilizing 
both  sides  of  his  ves- 
sels at  once,  and  (as  at 
the  Nile)  rendering  the 
leeward  division  of  the 
enemy's  ships  useless. 
Twenty  of  Villeneuve's 
ships  were  either  sunk 
or  captured,  ami  the 
French  naval  power  was 
l>ermanently  ruined. 
VoT  this  great  victory 
of  Trafalgar  P'ngland 
paid  a  great  price,  for 
Nelson  was  mortally 
woutuled  in  the  thick  of  the  fight.  He  lived  only  lung  Arrount  o/ 
enough  to  h-aru  that  victory  was  assur«'d.     *•  Now  1  am  .v,7.i');i''« 

satisfied,"  lit>  said.     "Thank  (Jod,  I  have  dunt'  my  duty."  loin/n,,, 

On  learning  of  \'illeiu'uve's  first  retirement  to  ( "adiz,  Napoleon 
immediately  used  the  Boulogne  army  for  an  attack  on  Austria. 


TuK  Nklhun  Mom  mknt  in  Si.  I'.mjl.-* 

C'.ATIIKDUAI.. 


462  strugglp:  for  empire 

He  eaptuiecl  Ulm  (October,  1805);  and  then  overwhelmingly 

defeated  the  combined  Russian  and  Austrian  forces  at  Aus- 

=  „,    T>  r    X   terlitz  in  Austria  (December,  1805).     The  Russians  re- 
541.  Defeat  ^  '  ^ 

of  Austria  tired  without  making  peace,  and  Austria  submitted  to 
an  russia  (iggi.a^(jing  terms.  Great  Britain  was  thus  left  alone  as 
an  active  antagonist  of  Napoleon.  Pitt,  harassed  and  almost 
in  despair,  died  in  January,  1806 ;  and  the  succeeding  ministry 
negotiated  for  peace  without  result,  for  Napoleon,  elated  by 
his  success,  was  planning  to  attack  Prussia.  Victories  at  Jena 
and  Auerstadt  (October,  1806)  opened  his  way  to  Berlin,  and 
the  mastery  of  Prussia  thus  gained  enabled  him  to  carry  out  a 
long-contemplated  measure  against  England. 

Austerlitz  had  made  Napoleon  master  of  the  Continent ;  but 

Trafalgar  had  confined  him  to  that  Continent ;  twenty  miles 

of  salt  water  put  England  beyond  the  reach  of  his  armies. 

leon's  com-    Furthermore,  the  war  on  which  she  had  expended  such 

war aean  t   enormous   sums   was  actually  making  her  richer.     The 

England         war   put  a  stop   to  manufacturing  in  various    parts  of 

Europe,  and  the  want  thus  created  was  filled  by  English 

goods.    To  ruin  this  commercial  and  industrial  prosperity  was 

Napoleon's   only  hope   of  harming  England.      The  dream  of 

reducing  Great  Britain  by  the  destruction  of  her  commercial 

prosperity,  long  floating  in  his  mind,  now  became  tangible,  and 

was  formulated  into  the  phrase  that  he  "  would  conquer  the  sea 

by  the  land." 

Accordingly,  in  November,  1806,  he  issued  the  famous  Ber- 
lin Decree,  which  declared  the  British  Isles  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  and  forbade  all  trade  with  England  throughout 
those  parts  of  Europe  over  which  Napoleon  liad  control  — 
including  France,  the  Netherlands,  western  Germany,  Prussia, 
and  Italy.  As  a  result  of  a  victory  over  the  Russians,  fol- 
lowed by  the  peace  of  Tilsit  (1807),  Russia  was  soon  added  to 
the  list  of  states  accepting  Napoleon's  "  Continental  System." 
In  December,  1807,  he  issued  a  second  decree  from  Milan,  which 


ri:RI<)I)   i»F   TIIK    NAPOI.r.OXir    wars    (1789-181o)      463 

ordered  tlie  st-izure  of  any  ship  whieh  had  touelied  at  a  British 
port. 

Great   Britain   retaliated  with    various    Orders    in   Council, 
which  declared  all  the  ports  of  France  and  her  allies  to  be 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  but  permitted  neutral  vessels  to  543   Opera 
ply  between  such  ports  and  those  of  Great  Britain.     The    q^^°^^^^^^^ 
object  of  the  British  government  was  (1)  to  starve  the  System 

stiites  of  Europe  into  abandoning  Napoleon,  (2)  to  force  Mahan,  In- 
him  to  withdraw  his  decrees,  and  (3)  to  make  war  pay  iea  Power 
tor  itself  by  diverting  all  commerce  to  her  own  ports.  on  the 

X'  1  '  i    ^i  I     1-       1        1  >  ii       A-  1       French  Rev- 

•">o  trade  except  throuyh    hngland,    was  the  formula    ^/^j^-^^,^  jj 
under  which  her  leaders  expressed  their  purpose."'  -oo 

Decrees  and  Orders  in  Council  proved  ecpially  futile.  Con- 
sumers of  British  and  colonial  goods  on  the  Continent  suffered, 
but  Napoleon  had  no  pity  on  them.  On  the  other  hand,  neu- 
tral traders,  whose  business  was  wholly  destroyed  by  the  Orders 
in  Council,  were  thrown  into  a  hostility  to  Great  Britain.  The 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  who  had  not  forgotten  the  Revo- 
lutionary War,  now  found  their  profitable  carrying  trade  cur- 
tailed by  Napoleon's  Decrees,  which  forbade  them  to  trade 
with  England,  and  by  the  British  Orders  in  Council,  which 
practically  forbade  them  to  trade  with  Europe. 

By  .secret  articles  in  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  France  and  Russia 

agreed   to   impose    the    Continental   System    u|»on    Denmark, 

Sweden,    Portugal,   and    Austria.      Great    Britiiin    soon        544    Re 

learned   of    this    arrangement    and    also    learned    that  suiting 

"  trouble  in 

Napoleon  was  planning  to  seize  the   Danish  fleet  as  a       Denmark 

nucleus  of  a   French    navy.      Canning,   Great    Britain's      *°     P*"^ 

energetic  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  therefore  induced  the 

ministry  to  seize  the  entire  Danish  fleet  and  hold  it  mitil  the 

end  of  the  war.     In  the  same  year  Great  Britain  took  jKjsses- 

sion  of  Heligoland,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ell>e,  as  a  i)ossible 

ba.se  of  operations  against  Napoleon's  (Jerman  allies,  and  as  a 

depot  for  goods  to  l>e  smuggled  into  (iermany  ;  and  the  island 


464 


STRUGGLE    FOR   EMPIRE 


remained  in  her  possession  until  1890,  when  it  was  restored 
to  Germany  in  return  for  concessions  in  South  Africa. 

Napoleon  tried  to  force  the  Continental  System   upon  the 
Spanish    penmsuhi,   by    seizing  Portugal  (1807)   and   making 

his  brother  Joseph  king  of 
Spain  (1808).  Great  Brit- 
ain at  once  sent  a  force 
under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 
to  Portugal,  and  by  large 
subsidies  induced  Austria 
to  make  one  more  struggle 
against  Napoleon.  Al- 
though Austria  was  totally 
defeated  in  the  campaign 
ending  at  Wagram  in  July, 
1809,  Wellesley  meanwhile 
gained  a  foothold  in  Por- 
tugal from  which  he  was 
never  dislodged. 

In  his  operation^  in  the 
Spanish  peninsula  Wellesley  displayed  the  finest  generalship, 
^^it^^   o^'^r   fifty   miles   of   fortifications  ("the  lines  of 
Peninsular     Torres  Vedras  ")  he  made  Lisbon  absolutely  impregnable, 
campaign      ^j^^^  securing  a  base  of  retreat  and  source  of  supplies  by 
water.     He  then  expelled  the  French  from  Portuguese  terri- 
tory, and  captured  the  frontier  fortresses  which  commanded 
the   approach   into    Spain.      At   this   critical    moment   (1810) 
Russia  refused  any  longer  to  maintain  the  Continental  Sys- 
tem ;  and  while  Napoleon  was  sacrificing  an  army  of  half  a 
million  men  by  an  invasion  of  her  territory  (1812),  Wellesley 
forced  his  way  steadily  into  Spain.     By  winning  the  impor- 
tant battle  of  Salamanca  (July,  1812),  and  then  moving  north- 
ward to  Burgos,  he  threatened  the  enemy's  connection   with 
France,  and  forced  him  to  evacuate  Madrid. 


Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of 
Wellington. 


I'KKiMi)  OF   riii:  N.\rni,i:(iNic  waks  (178(»-1815)     465 

Pressini,'  on,  Wi-lU'slcy  captun'il  the  line  of  fortresses  be- 
tween tilt'  Tyienees  and  the  sea,  and  by  January,  1814,  was 
establislu'd  u|)on  French  soil.  By  skillful  maneuvers,  which 
threatened  to  Duttlank  the  French  armies,  he  forced  them 
steadily  northward,  and  captured  Toulouse  on  April  1st.  On 
the  day  before,  the  allied  armies  of  Russia,  I'russia,  Austria, 
and  Sweden  entered  Paris  in  triumph.  Napoleon  was  forced 
to  abdicate  liis  throne,  and  remain  in  semicaptivity  on  the 
islaml  of  Elba,  while  the  brother  of  the  executed  kins;  Louis 
X\'I.  was  i)laced  on  the  tlirone  of  France  as  Louis  XVI 1 1. 

All  this  time  the  difficulties  of  (Jreat  lUitain  were  increased 

by  the  hostility  of  the  United   States,  provoked   by  (1)    tho 

various  Orders   in  Council,   (2)  the  exercise  of   the  old      549    war 

obnoxious  ri<'ht  of  search  in  carryintj  out  these  Orders,        ^'^^^  ^^^ 

United 
and  (3)  the  seizure  of  seamen  from  American  vessels  on  states 

the  pretense  that  they  were  British  citizens.  War  was  de-  '^^^^  ^^^^' 
dared  by  the  United  States  in  June,  1812.  With  the  exception 
of  indecisive  operations  on  the  ( "anadian  border,  the  fighting  was 
limited  to  naval  duels  upon  the  high  seas,  in  which  the  supe- 
riority of  American  seamanship  and  marksmanship  generally 
brought  about  the  defeat  of  the  liritish,  to  their  great  chagrin. 
In  ISl.S,  however,  the  American  navy  was  ])ractically  driven 
from  the  .seas,  though  American  privateers  harassed  the  (com- 
merce of  (heat  liritain. 

In  ISM,  the  fight  with  Napoleon  being  ended,  the  ministry 
]tlanii«d  three  invasions  of  the  United  States.  A  hasty  raid 
ujion  Wasiiington  was  .successful  (August);  but  an  inva.sion 
from  the  north  by  way  of  Lake  Chamjdain  was  checked  by 
Commander  MacDonough  (Septendx'r).  An  attack  niton  New 
Orleans  (beginning  in  l)e(M'n)b»'r)  was  re])ulsi'd  by  ( H-m-ral 
Jackson.  Tilt'  pt-aee  signeil  at  (Iln-nt  in  ISl  I  r.stnrfd  all  I'on- 
quests;  and  since  the  right  of  scarcii  had  ceased  to  be  vit;il  to 
Great  liritain  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  claim  to  exercise 
it  was  tacitlv  withdrawn. 


466  STRUGGLE   FOR   EMPIRE 

In  September,  lcS14,  a  congress  of  European  powers  met  at 
Vienna  for  the  purpose  of  readjusting  the  political  and  terri- 

547.  The       torial  conditions  of  the  Continent.     Its  sessions  form  an 

Congress  of    gp^^]^  [-^  ^]^g  history  of  international  relations.     The  four 

Vienna  ^  '' 

(1814-1816)   states   which   had  borne  the  burden   of   destroying  the 

spirit  of  the  French  Revolution  (Great  Britain,  Austria,  Russia, 
and  Prussia)  now  assumed  for  themselves  an  authority  supe- 
rior to  that  of  all  other  states  of  Europe,  and  Bourbon  France 
was  allowed  to  join  them.  Thus  arose  the  Pentarchy,  or 
"  Five  Great  Powers  "  (six  with  Italy  after  1870),  which  ever 
since,  when  occasion  arises,  have  assumed  the  right  to  shape 
the  destinies  of  smaller  states,  elevating  or  deposing  rulers, 
disposing  of  territory,  permitting  or  forbidding  war,  and 
demanding  the  abrogation  or  revision  of   treaties. 

To  avoid  quarrels  regarding  precedence,  it  Avas  agreed  that 
in  public  documents  the  five  states  should  be  named  in 
alphabetical  order,  but  Great  Britain  and  Austria  were  the 
leaders  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  Great  Britain,  despite  her 
opportunity,  demanded  no  large  territories,  and  Avas  content  to 
retain  Heligoland  as  a  base  for  her  Baltic  trade  rout§,  Malta 
on  the  road  to  Egypt,  and  Cape  Colony  and  Mauritius  on  the 
sea  route  to  India. 

In  March,  1815,  Napoleon  returned  to  France,  and  with  the 
aid  of  his  former  soldiers  was  again  made  emperor  (for  "  The 

548.  Water-   Hundred  Days  ").     The  Great  Powers  at  once  arranged 

loo  cam-         Jqj,  united  action,  and  forces  amounting  to  a  million  men 

paign  (April  '  '^ 

-June,1815)    were    focused    upon    Paris.      A    Prussian   army   under 

Bllicher   advanced   through    Flanders    from    the  northeast;  a 

British,  Dutch,  and    Hanoverian  army  under  Wellesley,  now 

Duke  of  Wellington,  from   the  northwest.     To  prevent  their 

union  Napoleon  struck  Bllicher  at  Ligny  (June  16)  and  drove 

him  back.     He  then  hastened  to  meet  Wellington  at  Waterloo, 

near  Brussels  (June  17,  1815).     From  eleven  in  the  morning 

until  four  in  the  afternoon  he  made  repeated  assaults  upon  the 


PKUIOl)    OF    Till-;    NAl'OLKOMC    WARS    (^1789-1815)        467 


Hritisli  front ;  but  tlie  Iron  Duke  had  chosen  his  position  with 
gi-eat  skill,  and  held  his  •ground  with  bulldog  tenacity,  wait- 
ing for  the  Prussians  to  join  him  and  turn  the  scale  against 
Napoleon  by  sVieer  num- 
bers. 

When  the  Prussians 
Hnally  appeared  on  the 
French  Hank,  late  in  the 
afternoon,  Napoleon  was 
compelled  to  risk  all  in 
one  final  assault  upon 
\\'ellington"s  position. 
The  latter  met  the  ad- 
vancing squadrons  with 
a  murderous  cannon  fire, 
and  then  at  tlie  decisive 
moment  attacked  with 
all  his  force,  main  and 
reserve.  The  rout  of  the 
French  was  complete. 
Napoleon  fled,  and,  unal)l<'  to  escape  from  the  country,  surren- 
dered to  the  commander  of  a  British  frigate  at  Rochefort. 
By  agreement  among  the  allies  he  w;us  retained  as  prisoner  iu 
the  liritish  colonv  of  St.  Helena  until  his  death  in  1821. 


Movements  le.\dinq  to  Waterloo. 


In  17SU  the  French  nation  undertook  to  reform  its  obsolete 
and    extravagant    government    by   creating    a    constitutional 
monarchy.     In  the  process,  the  power  fell  into  the  hands     549    gum. 
of  demagogues,  and  there  followed  a  "  Reign  of  Terror."  mary 

Toward  foreii,Mi  powers  France  entered  upon  a  republican  propa- 
ganda, wliirii  forced  neighboring  governments  to  attack  France 
in  self-defense.  War  brought  into  prominence  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  —  the  greatest  military  genius  and  the  most  selfisii 
and  unscrupulous  tyrant  of  nu»dern  times,  —  who  m;ule  him- 


468 


STRUGGLE    FOR   EMPIRP: 


self  master  of  France,  Italy,  Spain,  Holland,  and  western 
Germany,  and  for  a  time  forced  his  will  npon  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Sweden.  In  the  long  contest  which  ended  in  1815,  Great 
Britain  furnished  but  few  of  the  armies,  but  she  paid  a  very 
large  share  of  its  cost.  Her  navies  throttled  the  commerce  of 
France,  her  money  paid  for  the  armies  hurled  against 
Napoleon  by  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  her  general,  Welling- 
ton—  even  before  the  iinal  contest  at  Waterloo — did  more 
than  any  other  one  man  to  sap  Napoleon's  military  strength. 
In  this  great  work  she  earned  a  comnmnding  position  as  one 
of  the  Great  Powers  of  modern  Europe. 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


TOPICS 

(1)  Review  the  wars  between  France  and  England  under  the 
Bourbon  monarchs,  and  show  their  effect  on  France.  (2)  Show 
how  the  practice  of  creating  monopolies  tended  to  cripple  trade  and 
industry.  (8)  Compare  the  circumstances  under  which  feudal 
rights  and  privileges  were  abolished  in  England  and  in  France. 
(4)  When  was  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  passed  ?  Under  what  con- 
ditions may  it  rightly  be  suspended  ?  Do  you  think  these  condi- 
tions prevailed  in  England  in  1700  ?  (5)  State  exactly  what 
warranted  Great  Britain  in  interfering  with  the  affairs  of.  France. 

(6)  Was  Great  Britain  right  in  attacking  Denmark  in  1801?  in  1807? 

(7)  When  and  why  did  the  king  of  England  first  assume  the  title 
of  king  of  France  ?  (8)  What  king  of  England  was  actually 
crowned  king  of  France  ?  (9)  Show,  with  the  aid  of  a  map,  how 
Napoleon  hoped  to  close  the  ports  of  Europe  to  English  trade. 
(10)  Do  you  think  his  scheme  for  invading  England  was  feasi- 
ble ?  (11)  Did  the  Napoleonic  wars  affect  Russia's  influence  in 
Europe?  (12)  Show  how  the  Penin.sular  campaign  affected 
Napoleon's  operations  against  Austria  and   Russia. 

(13)  The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  (14)  An  account 
of  some  campaign  or  battle  which  illustrates  Napoleon's  military 
genius  (as  Lodi,  Austerlitz,  Wagram).  (15)  Effect  of  the  defense 
of  Acre  on  Napoleon's  designs  against  the  East.  (16)  A  compari- 
son of  Napoleon's  empire  with  Charlemagne's.  (17)  Victor  Hugo's 
description  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  Les  Miserahles.  (18)  Per- 
sonal traits  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  (19)  English  opinions 
about  Napoleon.  (20)  Contraband  trade  during  the  Continental 
System.     (21)  A  British  war  ship  in  1800.     (22)  Career  of  Nelson. 


I'EKUH)   OF   THK    N  Al'<  »I,i:<  iNlC    WAKS    (17W-1815)       469 


REFERENCES 


Secondary 
authorities 


See  maps,  pp.  421,  454,  r>44  ;  (Jardiiicr,  School  Alias,  maps  4'.t,  ")1,    Greogrrapby 
'.',».  82-87  ;  Ueich,  Xcw  Students'  Atlus,  maps  41-4(5. 

Mright,  IIisto,-y  of  Enijland,  III.  114.V11!)!),  121!t-134y;  Gardi- 
ner, StuileiU^s  History,  chs.  li.-liv.  ;  Kansome,  Advanced  Historij, 
8.j4-'.»ll  ;  Green,  Short  History.  797-8:50,  —  History  of  the  English 
People,  bk.  ix.  clis.  iv.  v.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  History  of  England, 
t<;;;)_,K4((,  8ol-8<>8  ;  McCarthy,  History  of  the  Four  Georges,  ch.  Ixii. ; 
Morris,  7'he  French  li'i  colution  ;  Hrewer,  Student's  Hume,  chs. 
xx.xii.  xxxiii.  ;  Lecky,  History  of  Enghnid  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury, chs.  xjx.-xxii.  ;  Oman.  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
chs.  i.-iii.  ;  Routiedge.  Popular  Progress,  chs.  ix.-xi.  ;  C.  K. 
Adams,  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France ;  Shand,  The  War 
in  the  Peninsula  ;  Creasy,  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles,  ch.  xv. ;  Raw- 
son,  Twenty  Famous  Naral  Battles,  ix.  xi.  ;  Southey,  Life  of 
Nel.-ion  ;  Mahan,  Life  of  Xelson,  I.  II.,  —  Influence  of  Sea  Power 
on  the  French  Bevtdution,  I.  II.  ;  Laughton,  Nelson ;  Russell, 
Nelson  ;  Hooper,  Wellington  ;  W.  O.  Morris,  Wellington,  chs. 
iii.-ix.  ;  Goldwin  Smithy  Three  English  Statesmen  (-'Pitt"); 
Rosebery.  William  Pitt  the  Younger.  See  New  England  History 
Teadurs'  A.ssociation,  Syllabus,  2<>0-201. 

Colby,  Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  104,  105,  107  ;  Kendall,    Sources 
Sourer- Hook;  ch.  xix.  ;  Henderson,  Side  Lights,  272-2U7  ;  Frances 
D'Arblay,  Memoirs  ;  Langhton,  Letters  and  Dispatches  of  Nelson. 

Bates  and  Cnman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  3<U>- 
:W5  ;  liiackniore,  Tlie  Maid  of  Sker,  —  Springhaven  ;  Dickens,  A 
Tale  of  Tiro  ('itirs;  lliii:!),  Les  Misiral'les  \  Henty.  By  Conduct 
and  Courage,  —  Held  Fast  for  England  ;  Steveusou,  i>t.  Ives. 


Illustrative 
Works 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

LOCAL   CONDITIONS    (1783-1820) 

The  period  between  1783  and  1793  witnessed  speculation  and 

reckless    banking    in   England  which   led   to  many   business 

_„  „.  failures  and   a  consequent   panic.      In  1793    (the  year 

550.  Finan-  ^  ^  t^  -T  •    x 

cial  aspects   when  war  broke  out  between  France  and  Great  Britain) 

of  the  war      ^^^^^.^  ^j^^^^  ^  fourth  of  the  country  banks  failed,  and  Pitt 
was  compelled  to  lend  to  solvent  merchants  the  credit  of  the 


The  Bank  of  Enciland. 

government,  in  order  to  tide  over  the  crisis.  Although  the 
government  borrowed  at  the  rate  of  £23,000,000  a  year,  the 
taxes  were  enormously  increased,  both  in  amount  and  in  kind. 
Stamp  duties,  taxes  on  legacies  and  on  succession,  on  incomes, 
on  food  stuffs,  on  windows,  were  added  to  the  list. 

470 


LOCAL   CONDITIONS  (1783-1820)  471 

As  tlie  war  aJvauced,  money  became  very  scarce,  because 
(1)  much  'j,viiin  ami  material  of  -svar  were  purchaseil  abroad, 
(!')  subsidies  to  Austria  and  Prussia  were  paid  in  specie,  (o)  at 
the  same  time  exports  to  Frauce,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Holland 
fell  to  an  extremely  low  point.  People  began  to  hoard  their 
money  instead  of  depositing  it  in  the  banks,  and  on  February 
20,  1797,  the  Bank  of  England  had  only  a  two  days'  supply 
of  gold.  Specie  payments  of  over  one  pound  were  stopped, 
and  for  twenty-two  years  bank  notes  formed  the  circulating 
medium.  Commerce  revived  as  the  merchant  ships  of  other 
nations  were  swept  from  the  seas,  but  from  1810  to  1814  bank- 
ruptcies were  numerous ;  and  the  strain  of  the  long  war  began 
to  be  more  keenly  felt.  Between  1792  and  1815  the  national 
debt  leaped  from  A*  240,000,000  to  £8()0,000,000. 

Meanwhile  the  lower  classes  were  suffering  from  economic 
changes  which  they  could  not  understand.  Even  when  trade 
and   manufactures   were   most   flourishing,    wages   were   ^^^  jjj^^^^^ 

kept  low  through  the  employment  of  women  and  children     among  the 

mi  I  ■        1  masses 

in  factories  and  even  m  mines.     The  working  day  was 

from  fifteen  to  eighteen  hours  long,  and   hand  spinners  and 

weavers  could   find  no  employment.     While  food  stuffs  were 

dear,  the  wages  of  farm  hands  declined,  for  the  landowners 

claimed   that  high   taxes   and  rents  consumed   their  profits. 

Though  the  demand  for  farm  laborers  was  increasing,  thousands 

threw  themselves  upon  the  parishes  for  support,  as  paupers. 

As  successive  harvests  proved  good  or  bad,  wheat  fluctuated 

violently  from  70  to  180  shillings  a  quarter  ($1.80  to  $o.oO  a 

bushel).     Meat  m(n-e  titan  doubled  in  price. 

In  1793  the  king's  carriage  was  detained  in  the  streets  of 

London  by  a  mob  clamoring  for  "  liread,  bread  !    peace,  peace !  " 

III  17'.>7  the  crews  at  Spithead  and  at  the  Nore  "struck"  for 

higher  wages,  and  the  mutinies  were  with  ditliculty  put  down. 

In  1811,  the  facU.ry  hands,  forty  thousand  strong,  petitioned 

Parliament  to  save  them  from  starving.     In  the  same  year,  the 


472  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

hand  weavers  began  the  practice  of  machine  breaking,  taking 
the  name  "Luddites"  from  an  idiot  boy  named  Ludd,  who 
several  years  before  had  destroyed  some  machinery  in  a  fit 
of  passion.  Banding  together  in  riotous  mobs,  the  Luddites 
destroyed  the  machines  almost  as  fast  as  they  could  be  pro- 
cured by  the  manufacturers.  The  militia  sympathized  with 
the  machine  breakers.  The  revolt  spread  to  the  farm  laborers, 
who  attacked  especially  the  thrashing  machines ;  and  the  riots 
ceased  only  after  a  younger  generation  had  grown  up,  trained 
from  childhood  to  work  with  machines. 

All  this  disturbance  hindered  instead  of  aiding  the  movement 
for   political    reform.      Before   the    second   war  with    France 

.  .     (1803),  Pitt,   Fox,   Burke,   and    Grey    proposed   various 

552.  Politi-    V  /'  '  '  '  J     s.      I 

cal  condi-       schemes  for  purifying  Parliament  and  making  it  more 
tions  representative,  but  while  France  was  in  turmoil  ]*arlia- 

ment  refused  to  try  experiments.  In  1807  a  bill  abolishing 
the  slave  trade  was  passed  after  years  of  agitation,  but  Grey's 
bill  to  remove  Catholic  disabilities  failed.  George  TIL  believed 
that  to  sign  a  bill  giving  political  rights  to  Catholics  would  be 
to  violate  his  coronation  oath  "  to  maintain  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion as  by  law  established " ;  and  since  the  discussion  of  the 
question  provoked  attacks  of  insanity,  to  which  he  was  sub- 
ject, the  agitation  was  stopped  during  Portland's  and  Perce- 
val's ministries  (1807-1812).  In  the  year  1810  the  king  became 
permanently  insane,  and  his  disreputable  son  (afterward  King 
George  IV.)  was  made  regent,  with  restricted  powers. 

During  Lord  Liverpool's  ministry  (1812-1827)  the  clamor 
for  reform  was  continuous,  especially  after  the  restoration  of 

553.  Ex-       peace  in  1815;  but  beyond  making  some  concessions  to 

cesses  of  the  (jiggenters  (1812)  and  admitting   Catholics  to  all  ranks 

reform  ^  ■'  ^ 

movement     of   the   army   and   navy   (1817),  the    Tories  refused  to 

give  up  their  political  and  ecclesiastical  monopoly.     Citizens 

of   Manchester,    Birmingham,   Leeds,  and  other   great  towns 

held  monster  meetings  to  attack   the  outworn  system  which 


L(K"AI,   ('nNl)rri<)XS    (17H:i-18-JO)  473 

left  thein  withdiil  rcini'Sfiitatidii.  Al  nn<'  iiicptiii^'  in  St. 
rater's  FioKls,  MaiK-hester,  wlieie  toity  tlunisaiul  peoiilc  ot 
both  sexes  and  all  ages  were  gathered  (181U),  an  attempt  tu 
arrest  the  orator  of  the  meeting  resulted  in  a  general  riot  in 
which  seventy-five  persons  were  killed,  and  one  hundred 
injured,  —  an  event  long  known  as  the  "  Peterloo  "  massacre. 
The  immediate  result  of  these  agitations  was  the  passage  of 
''the  Six  Acts"  in  1819,  for  punishing  (1)  the  holding  of 
outdot)r  meetings,  (-)  seditious  publications  by  the  press, 
(M)  the  circulation  of  libels,  and  (4)  private  military  drill; 
and  for  securing  (5)  the  speedy  trial  of  rioters  and  (<5)  the 
si'izure  of  arms  in  sixteen  counties  where  riots  had  been  most 
frequent.     By  this  means  order  was  gradually  restored. 

Throughout  the  French  wars,  Ireland  was  a  cause  of  endless 
worry.     The   extreme   patriots  —  organized    into   the   society 
(»f   the  United    Irishmen  —  sought   to  make   Ireland  an    g^^    Union 
independent   repnblic;    the   lo^'al    C'atholics   refused    to      of  Ireland 
pay  tithes  to  the  I'rotestant  clergy;  and  even  the  hitherto  Britain 

peaceable  Protestants  of  Ulster  demanded  parliamentary  U801; 

reforms  and  relief  from  English  dictation  in  their  government. 
In  17*.)8  the  United  Irishmen,  under  the  leadership  of  Wolf 
Tone,  actually  invoked  the  aid  of  France  for  a  general  up- 
rising against  England.  The  movement  failed,  and  many  of 
tlie  leaders  were  execmted,  but  the  danger  was  acute. 

As  a  .safeguard  against  further  trouble,  Pitt  conceived  the 
idea  of  merging  the  liritish  and  Irish  legislatures  into  one. 
The  Irish  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  j)ro-British  residents 
in  Ireland,  made  little  objection.  The  principal  jjrotest  came 
from  the  owners  of  borougljs  (who  were  unwilling  to  lose  their 
chance  to  sell  seats  and  votes  in  the  Irish  Parliament),  and 
Pitt  silenced  their  opjjosition  by  binding  the  government  to 
pay  them  i:  1,200,000  Tor  tiitiuT)  a  .seat)  for  the  losses  su.stained. 
Py  this  means  an  .\ct  of  Union  was  ])assed  in  ISOO.  by  wliieh 
the  two  Parliaments  were  luiited:    the    Irisii    peers  were  to 


200       400      600 
Y    J  J  British  Domalna 

INDIAN     OC^An\  I  Protertrf  States 


LOCAL   CONDITIONS    (,17s:i-182n)  475 

choose  twenty-four  of  their  nnmher  to  sit  in  the  new  House 
of  Lords,  and  one  hundred  representatives  of  the  Irish 
boroughs  and  counties  were  to  sit  in  the  new  House  of 
Commons.  The  cross  of  St.  Patrick  was  added  to  that  of  St. 
Andrew  and  St.  George  on  the  royal  flag,  and  the  country  was 
renamed  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Unable  to  secure  further  reforms  which  Pitt  had  promised 
them,  the  Irish  again  rebelled  in  1803,  under  the  leadership 
of  Robert  Emmet.  ^Mobs  in  Dublin  and  Ulster  were  dis- 
persed with  difficulty;  but  Emmet's  uprising  was  imperfectly 
organized,  and  the  Irish  failed  to  act  promptly  and  unitedly. 
Emmet  was  executed,  and  the  rebellion  was  stamped  out  so 
effectually  that  Ireland  remained  quiet,  though  discontented, 
for  many  years. 

In  1798  the  government  of  India  was  intrusted  to  Richard 

Wellesley  (later  Marquis).     Fiiuling  that  French  officers  were 

intriguing  with  native  ijrinces  and  drilling  their  armies,        ,,,    ^ 
°       ^  *  ®  '        555.  Ex- 

Wellesley    adopted    the    vigorous    policy    of    deposing      pansion  in 
[irinces  who  seemed  to  be  friendly  to  France,  and  sub- 
stituting others  who  favored  England.     Over  other  states  he 
estal)lished  "  protectijrates  " ;  in  other  words  he  assumed  the 
right   to  control    their    relations  with  other  powers,  but   left 
the  native  rulers  in  control  of  the  local  government. 

The  most  notable  event  of  Wellesley's  Indian  career  was  his 
conquest  of  the  Mahratta  states  in  the  region  between  the 
l>ckkan  and  Deliii.  Holkar  and  Scindia  were  the  leading 
Mahratta  chiefs,  and  in  iMO.i  an  expedition  was  dispatched 
against  them  from  the  south.  In  this  expeditit)n,  resulting  in 
victories  at  Assaye  an<l  elsewhere.  Colonel  Arthur  Wellesley 
(brother  of  the  (Joveiimr  of  India,  and  later  Puke  of  Wellirig- 
t(jn)  first  j)rove<l  the  high  (piality  of  his  soldi»'rsliip.  Two 
years  later  another  army  w;us  sent  toward  Delhi  from  the 
north,  along  the  Ganges  valley.  The  two  expeditions  resulted 
in  bringing  the  (Jrand   Mogul  under   Rrifish  influence,  and  in 


476  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

establishing  a  protectorate  over  nmch  of  the  conquered  terri- 
Tout,  His-  tory.  As  a  result  of  Wellesley's  triumphs,  "  the  Company 
<o?-2/ 0/  were  forced  by  irresistible  facts  to  accept  their  position 

England,  -^  i  r 

1689-1S9U       as  rulers  of  half  India,  and  suzerains  of  the  rest." 

The  agitation  of  the  times  is  reflected  in  the  literature  of 

the  period.     Robert  Burns   (1759-1796),  the  national  poet  of 

556.  Liter-    Scotland,  voiced  it  in  his  revolt  against  pride  of  birth 

ature :  /  4  man's  a  man  for  a'  that  ! ),  his  burning  patriotism 

Burns,  i     1  • 

Coleridge,      (Scots  wlia   hae   ivi'    Wallace   bled),    and    his    sympathy 

Southey  with  the  poor  and  downtrodden  (The  Cottar's  Saturday 
Night),  A  similar  spirit  animated  Samuel  Coleridge  (1772- 
1834),  Robert  Southey  (1774-1843),  and  William  Wordsworth 
(1770-1850)  —  called  the  "  Lake  Poets  "  because  they  lived  in 
the  lake  region  of  Westmoreland.  It  was  the  revolutionary 
impulse  that  led  Coleridge  in  early  j^outh  to  suggest  a  com- 
munistic state  (the  Pantisocracy)  to  be  founded  "somewhere 
on  the  Susquehanna '' ;  but  his  genius  turned  to  the  imagina- 
tive, and  his  finest  works  (TJie  Hi  me  of  the  Ancient  3Iariner, 
Christabel)  are  purely  romantic.  Southey  was  associated  with 
Coleridge  in  the  Pantisocracy  scheme,  and  his  earlier  poems 
(Wat  Tyler,  Joan  of  Arc)  were  revolutionary  in  tone;  but 
he  soon  became  an  ardent  Tory,  and  a  hater  of  Napoleon, 
whose  downfall  he  ridiculed  in  the  spirited  March  to  Moscoiv. 
Wordsworth  was  Southey's  successor  as  poet-laureate. 
During  a  tour  in  France  in  1791,  he  became  fired  wdth  a  pas- 
557  Words-  ^^^^^  ^°^'  "liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity";  but  the  fate 
worth  of  the  French  under  Napoleon  taught  him  that  man's 

true  happiness  depends  not  on  political  liberty  but  on  the 
freedom  of  his  spirit  from  bigotry,  luxury,  and  folly.  His 
great  poems  are  therefore  those  which  set  forth  in  simple  but 
^vouderfulty  beautiful  language  the  value  of  "  plain  living  and 
high  thinking."  His  Ode  on  the  Intimations  of  Immortality 
and  his  numerous  sonnets  depicting  the  beauties  of  nature  are 
unsurpassed  in  English  literature. 


LOCAL   CONDITIONS   (1783-1820) 


477 


Less  sane  and  less  profound,  but  perhaps  more  brilliantly 
endowed,  were  the  poets  of  twin  genius,  Percy  Bysshc  Sliellt'v 
(1792-182L*)  and  Joim  Keats  (179o-18-'l).  While  Keats  553.  sheiiey 
stopped  his  ears  to  the  din  of  the  present,  and  pondered  ^^^  Keats 
only  on  the  classic  and  romantic  past  (Enclymion,  St.  Ayues^ 
Eve,  Ode  to  a  Greek  Urn),  Shelley's  unbalanced  nature  led  him 
to  revolt  aiiainst  religion  and  the  social  order  in  his  Queen  Mah, 

and  in  his  own  life  as 
well ;  but  the  beauty  of 
his  purely  imaginative 
poetry  (Adonais,  To  a  Sky 
Lark,  Ode  to  the  West 
Wind)  makes  one  forget 
the  errors  of  its  author. 

George  Gordon,  Lord 
Byron  (1788-181'4), 
showed  his  revolu-  559  g-j. 
tionary  temper  by 
political  poems,  satires 
(ju  Knglish  social  life,  and 
poems  glorifying  the  re- 
mote i)ast  (C'ftihh'  Harold's 
Pihirimaiji',  Don  Jnatt). 
I')y  his  metrical  romances 
(Tlie  Giaour,  The  Bride 
of  Abffdos,  etc.)  he  also 
earneil  a  place  beside  Scott  as  the  creator  of  the  modern 
romantic  school  of  literature. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  (1771-1832)  has  little  in  common  with  the 
revolutionary  poets  except  a  certain  jiervading  note  of  the 
heroic;  for  his  subjects  arc  all  drawn  from  the  historic  past, 
beginning  with  a  series  of  versitied  romances  (iMy  of  the  fjist 
Miu.strel,  Marmion,  Ltidy  of  tho  L<ikf),  he  abandoned  this  vein 
as  soon  as   Uyron  began  to  work   it;  and  in    lsl4  published 

WAI.KKK's    KXO.     Hl-'T. 2U 


on 
and  Scott 


LiiUD   MvitoN. 
Finiii  tlif  |i:iintiii)i  by  P.  Kriiincr. 


478 


INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 


Waverley,  the  first  of  a  series  of  twenty-seven  splendid  novels. 
Around  characters  drawn  from  English,  Scottish,  and  French 
history,  lie  weaves  a  fascinating  web  of  romance;  and  in  the 


Ai;i.oii.-i  wi;i),  lUK  ilu.MK  ui    Sill  Walter  Scott.    » 

lifelike  portraiture  of  character,  the  blending  of  imagination 
with  fact,  and  the  power  to  re-create  the  past,  he  far  excels 
all  his  imitators  in  the  field  of  the  historical  novel. 


Every  stratum  of  English  social  life  felt  the  liberal  impulse 
that  caused  the  French  Eevolution,  and    suffered    from    the 
560    Sum-     imperial  turn  given  to  that  impulse  under  Napoleon.     In 
mary  the  minds  of  conservative  men  these  events  led  to  a  dis- 

trust of  change ;  in  more  sanguine  spirits  tliey  caused  an 
imperative  demand  for  the  abolition  of  long-standing  abuses ; 
among  the  lower  classes  the}-  aroused  discontent  and  lawless- 
ness. Nevertheless,  conservatism  through  organized  govern- 
ment proved  strong  enough  to  crush  out  all  rebellion,  to  prevent 


LOCAL   CONDITIONS    (1783-1820) 


4T1> 


radical  changes,  ami  even  to  increase  its  power  in  Ireland  and 
India;  English  industry  and  commerce  showed  their  vitality 
by  growing  steadily  amid  an  exhausting  war;  and  English 
literature  caught  from  these  stirring  times  a  new  inspiration 
and  a  new  glory. 

TOPICS 

(1")  Just  what  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "speculation  and  reckless  Suggestive 
bankin;;"?  (2)  When  and  under  what  circumstances  did  the  °P"^* 
United  States  <;o  tlirougii  a  financial  experience  similar  to  that  of 
(ireat  Britain  between  178.>  and  17!»;J  ?  (:?)  Does  the  United  States 
lay  a  tax  on  incomes  ?  (4)  Should  you  think  it  just,  and  also  wise, 
to  levy  a  tax  on  windows?  (5)  Were  power  machines  an  injury 
f)r  a  blessing  to  the  working  classes  ?  (6)  Point  out  the  error  in 
George  Ill.'s  interpretation  of  his  coronation  oath.  (7)  Was  it 
just  to  expend  the  public  money  in  buying  off  the  Irish  borough 
owners?  (8)  Compare  the  work  in  India  of  Clive,  of  Hastings, 
and  of  Wellesley.  (0)  Why  was  the  slave  trade  prohibited  ? 
(10)  On  an  outline  map,  indicate  Great  Britain's  possessions  in 
17'Jo  and  in  1H15. 

(11)  ('renditions  of  labor  in  English  factories  at  the  beginning  of  Search 
the  nineteenth  century.  (12)  Life  on  a  slave  vessel,  (l-'l)  John  ^°P^^^ 
Howard,  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  and  prison  reform.  (14)  Thackeray's 
estimate  of  George  III.'s  character.  (15)  The  career  of  Henry 
Grattan.  (10)  Show  how  the  minor  writers  of  the  period  (Crabbe, 
Mo.,ie,  Jeffrey,  Dc  Quincey)  reflected  its  spirit.  (17)  nenefit,s  to 
Indiaof  English  rule.  (18)  The  trial  of  Kobert  Emmet.  (IW)  George 
Eliot's  picture  of  the  economic  conditions  in  England  during  this 
jxriod  in  Silas  Marner.  (20)  The  mystery  of  the  authorehip  of 
Wuvtrlvy. 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  .W4.  38.'..  474  ;  Gardiner,  SchnnJ  Atlas,  maps  ;')(»,    Geography 
'>4  ;   I'oole.  Ilistorirnl  Atl'i.t.  maj)  Ixxxiv.  ;    Heich.   AV'"  Stitdiiits' 
Alius,  maps  36,  :]»>,  :!H.  .".1. 

Bright,  Histonj  »f  K»'jl.n><l.  III.  1177-nH4.  ll'.<'.t-l-'l'.t,  l-iM- 
1275,  1M40-I3«»;l  (and  see  index)  ;  (Jardiner,  Stiiftnirs  //i!>(orij. 
h:',1-835,  840-843,  855-850,  875-880,  887-8{>0  ;  Kansc.me,  Adnnircl 
History,  870-883,  8H<{-85nJ,  011-019;  Green,  ShuH  Ilistorij.  Hll- 
slH,  828-020;  Montague.  Elmunls  of  Conslitntinnitl  History,  184- 
103;  Gibbins.  Industrial  History,  170-180;  Cheyuey,  Iiitroiluclion 


Secondary 
authorities 


480 


INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


to  Industrial  History,  ch.  viii.  ;  Powell  and  Tout,  HiMory  of  Eng- 
land, 840-851,  868-869,  98-1-1008  ;  S.  Walpole,  History  of  Eng- 
land from  1815,  I.  chs.  i.-v. ;  McCarthy,  History  of  the  Four 
Georges,  ch.  Ixi.,  —  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Ireland,  ch.  viii. ; 
Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  chs.  xxiii.-xxxii. ; 
Jenks,  Parliamentary  England,  ch.  x. ;  Kent,  The  English  Radi- 
cals, ch.  ii. ;  Routledge,  Popular  Progress,  chs.  xii.-xxi. ;  Traill, 
Social  England, chs.  xix.xx. ;  Lawless,  //-e/aMfZ,  chs.lii.-liv. ;  Morris, 
Ireland,  1494-IS6S,  ch.  viii. ;  Kent,  The  English  Radicals,  ch.  ii.  ; 
Seeley,  Expansion  of  England,  294-316  ;  Lyall,  Bise  of  British 
Dominion  in  India,  chs.  xii.-xvi. ;  Taylor,  Tlie  Factory  System  and 
the  Factory  Acts,  chs.  ii.  iii. ;  Toynbee,  The  Industrial  Revolution  ; 
W.  O.  Morris,  Wellington,  chs.  i.-ii. ;  Traill,  Social  England, 
chs.  xix.  XX. ;  Webb,  Histoi-y  of  Trade  Unionism ;  Macdonagh, 
Life  of  O''  Connell,  chs.  i.-vi. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  255-259 ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sotirces,  nos.  106,  108,  113  ;  Henderson',  Side 
Lights,  297-;300 ;  Sanders,  Melbourne  Papers ;  Stapleton,  Can- 
nijig^s  Official  Correspondence  ;  Baniford,  Passages  in  the  Life  of 
an  English  Radical. 

Ainsworth,  Castle  Rackrent ;  Henty,  Through  the  Fray ;  C. 
Kingsley,  Yeast ;   Marshall,  In  Four  Reigns. 


THE  HANOVKRIAX  LINE 

Time  scale,  -W  years  to  one  Inch 


-GEORGE  l.ri).-x7or 


(Sn.l  Ek.-<ur^.f  lltaoTCT) 


>52: 


GEORGE   II. 


(3rl  Elector  of  Bibotct) 


1760< 


Frederick 

-  Priao  of  W»l«  - 


William 

-  Duke  of  CumberiMid- 
d.  17C6 


-GEORGE   III- 


(■mi  riertoc:  Klii«  of  lUnoTer.  1816) 


Frederick 

_I>uke  of  Y<irk  - 

d.  ia» 


ERNEST  AUGUSTUS 
-lib  Klac  of  Umnorir.  1837 


* GEORGE  IV.— 

CtB.1  KlrC'.f  II^DOTWO 


-WILLIAM  IV 

(srl  Kli>(  of  itaaaret)  Edward 


"Bake 


'W" 


VICTORIA^  AltH-rt 

"      Ptlsce  of 


aM»^ol»nw  OotlMI 


fOWARO  VII.— 

I 
<J<-i.ri;'-  Kr«-<l<>rick 

l*r.v.  '     ?  W«>t 


EdvMirJ  AH,.rt  AllMTl  Kr.-.l.rl.k  H-riry  W  lUluiii  Cieorgi- Edwunl 


481 


CHAPTER   XXXIV. 

THE    REMOVAL   OF   ABUSES    (1820-1850) 

After  peace  was  restored  in  1815,  the  Tories  remained  in 
power  with  Lord  Liverpool  as  prime  minister;  but  the  grow- 

,^,    ^  ,.  •    ins  strength  of  the  reform  movement  gradually  divided 

561.  Politi-        so  &  J 

calchanges  them  into  two  factions.  In  1822  the  liberal  wing,  headed 
(1820-1837)  ^^  George  Canning,  Huskissou,  and  Peel,  gained  control 
of  the  party.  Canning  was  a  very  able  statesman,  and  an  advo- 
cate of  internal  reforms,  such  as  religious  toleration  and  free- 
dom of  trade.  His  death  in  1827  brought  the  conservative 
wing  again  into  power,  but  in  the  elections  which  followed 
the  death  of  George  IV.,  three  years  later,  the  Whigs  secured 
a  strong  majority,  and  the  seven  years'  reign  of  William  IV. 
(1830-1837)  was  a  period  of  radical  reforms  under  th(^  leader- 
ship of  Lord  Grey,  which  the  honest  but  simple-minded  king 
vainly  tried  to  check. 

The  reforms  of  Canning,   Huskisson,  and  Peel  dealt  with 
economic  rather  than    political  evils.     England  had  for   cen- 

562.  Relax-   turies  carried  the  theory  of  a  protective  tariff  to  extremes. 

ation  of  the   rpj^^  navigation  acts  protected  traders  ;  the  "  corn  laws  " 

protective  '^  ^  ' 

tariff  enriched   the   landowners ;    and   cloth   duties   aided   the 

weavers.    Now,  as  industries  became  diversified,  rival  interests 

clashed.     The  farmer  wished  to  shut  out  competition  in  grain 

(called  "  corn  "  in  England)  and  other  food  stuffs,  but  favored 

free  inrportation   of  cloths.     The   silk  spinner   and  the  cloth 

manufacturer  desired  cheaper  food  ;  but  the  former  demanded 

the  exclusion  of  spun  silk,  and  the  latter  wanted  everything 

freed  from  duties  except  foreign  cloths. 

482 


TlIK    KK.MitVAL    <  >F    ABUSES    (1820-1860) 


483 


The  granting  of  trade  })rivileges  witli  the  United  States 
after  18ir»  w;is  the  hrst  step  tuward  breaking  down  the 
protectionist  strncture  in  EngUmd.  In  ISl'."!  an  act  for 
"  Keciproc-ity  of  l)uti(>s"  was  passed,  to  end  a  tariff  war  with 
Trussia,  Tortngal,  and  the  Xetherhinds;  and  Huskiss(Mrs  Hill, 
lowering  both  import  and  export  duties  on  wool  and  silk, 
followed  (1824).  The  results  were  surprising.  Although 
forty  million  pounds  of  wool  were  imported  in  a  single  year, 
the  price  of  English  wool  was  not  lowered,  because  with  open 
markets  the  demand  for  goods  increased  as  fast  as  the  supply 
of  raw  nuiterials. 

Meanwhile   the   question    of   religious    e(piality    was  being 
powerfully  agitated.     In  ISl'o  Daniel  O'Connell,  the  greatest 
of  Irish  patriots,  organized  a  Catlitilicr  Association,  wliieli         563.  Re 
soon    became   so  powerful  as  to  control   practically  all        relirious 
elections  in  Ireland.     The  government  dissolved  the  .\s-     disabilities 
swiation  as  illegal,  but  another  was  immediately  formed.     In 
England    the     Whigs 
redoubled  their  attacks 
on  the  antiquated  Test 
and  Corporation   acts. 
Finally,  in    1828,   the 
Tories     consented     to 
repr;il  tln'  clauses  com- 
pelling ofHcials  to  com- 
mune with  th«^  Church 
of  England   (thus  ad- 
mitting   dis.senters    t<> 
office),  but  refused  to 
alter    the    declaration 
against  transubstanti- 
ation. 

In  182S  O'Connell   was    eh'cted  to  rarliament,  although  it 
was  clear  that  he  would  refusi;  to  take  the  oath.     This  event 


Statuk  ok  I).\nir[.  o'Connkll,  Dim. in. 


484  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

convinced  Wellington  and  Peel  that  they  must  choose  between 
Catholic  emancipation  and  civil  war;  and  in  1829  the  Catholic 
Kelief  Bill  was  passed,  by  which  Catholics  were  made  eligible 
for  seats  in  Parliament  and  for  all  offices  except  those  which, 
involved  direct  control  over  the  church  or  the  crown  {e.g.  that 
of  regent). 

In  1831  a  sweeping  bill  for  equalizing  representation  was 
framed  by  Lord  John  Russell,  leader  of  the  House  of  Com- 
564  Reform  "^ons  in  Lord  Grey's  Whig  ministry.  This  bill  failed 
Bill  of  1832  to  pass  in  the  lower  house  by  a  small  majority,  but  the 
ministry,  confident  that  the  nation  demanded  this  reform, 
decided  to  appeal  to  the  country.  In  the  excited  election 
which  followed,  the  party  opposed  to  reform  lost  a  hundred 
seats,  and  would  have  lost  more  had  not  the  rotten  boroughs 
been  be3^ond  the  reach  of  argument.  In  the  new  House  of 
Commons  the  bill  was  passed  by  a  majority  of  136,  but  failed 
by  a  majority  of  41  in  the  House  of  Lords.  This  deliberate 
resistance  to  the  will  of  the  country  provoked  riots  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country ;  vast  meetings,  numbering  as  high 
as  100,000  persons,  assembled  to  protest;  a  revolution  was 
threatened.  The  ministry  offered  the  Lords  a  chance  to  yield 
gracefully  by  framing  and  passing  a  fresh  bill  by  a  majority 
of  162,  but  the  Lords  were  obstinate.  The  prime  minister, 
Earl  Grey,  now  asked  William  IV.  to  create  enough  new  peers 
to  make  a  majority  in  favor  of  the  bill ;  but  the  monarch, 
reluctant  to  do  so  radical  an  act,  appealed  to .  the  Lords  to 
respect  the  manifest  wish  of  the  nation,  and  by  the  advice 
and  example  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  enough  of  its  op- 
ponents refrained  from  voting  to  assure  the  passage  of  the 
Eeform  Bill  in  June,  1832. 

By  the  terms  of  this  bill  (1)  the  rotten  boroughs  were  re- 
x-M    *     formed,  56  being  each  deprived  of  both  its  representa- 

do 5.  £lI6CtfS 

of  Kussell's   fives,  32  others  with  a  population  under  4000  being  each 
orm    1      d^eprived  of  one  or  more  of  its  members,  and  thus  143 


I'llK    KEMnVAI.   ol-'    AlUSKS    (182U-ls.->()) 


485 


seats  in  the  House  of  Coiunions  being  left  vacant  and  nnas- 
signed;  (2)  the  gaps  were  refilled  by  adding  Go  new  members 
in  the  larger  counties,  by  giving  two  members  each  to  liirming- 
ham,  Manchester,  Leeds,  ShetUeld,  and  18  other  large  towns,  by 
giving  one  member  each  to  21  small  towns  hitherto  unrepre- 
sented, and  by  increasing  the  representation  of  London ;  (3)  in 
the  towns,  every  householder  with  premises  of  £10  yearly 
value  received  the  right  to  vote;  in  the  counties  copyholders 
(nuvnorial  tenants  holding  their  land  by  ancient  custom)  and 
leaseholders  were  enfranchised. 

The  tirst  House  of  Commons  elected  on  the  new  suffrage  basis 

contained   4<S()   AVhigs 

and   17-   Tories,    566.  Politi- 

1     ,1        \\M  ;  cal  condi- 

and    tlie    W  lugs 

'^  tions 

were  in  control  (1832-1841. 
most  of  the  time  for 
the  next  thirty  years. 
Viscount  Melbourne, 
wlio  succeeded  Lord 
Grey  as  the  head  of 
the  Whig  party  in 
18o4,  was  prime  minis- 
ter when  William  died 
in  IS.'iT  ;  and  to  liim 
fell  the  guidance  of 
the  new  queen,  the 
eighteen-year-old  Vic- 
toria. 

Since  no  woman 
<<)ul(l  inherit  the  crown 
of    Hanover,   the   per- 

<jl   KK.N    \'l<  TKltIA    IN     IS'.lT. 

soiial  union  between 
that  country  and  (in-at  I'.ritain  now  eanie  to  an  end.  In  1840 
the    young  (pieen   married   her  cousin   I'rince   Albert  of  Saxe- 


486  INTERNAL    DEVELOPMENT 

Coburg-Gotha  (a  small  German  state),  who  "  accepted  at  once 
his  position  as  the  husband  of  the  queen  of  a  constitutional 
McCarthy  country  .  .  .  and  constituted  himself  a  sort  of  minister 
History  of  without  portfolio  of  art  and  education."  In  1841  a  Tory 
Times,  I  reaction  placed  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  power  ;  but  in  1846 
ch.  vii.  i^is  adoption  of  the  policy  of  tariff  reform  (§  578)  caused 

a  disastrous  split  in  his  party.  Peel  and  about  forty  followers 
thenceforth  acted  as  independents  in  politics,  and  the  remain- 
ing Tories  took  the  name  of  Conservatives. 

Besides  Peel,  the  most  notable  figure  of  the  period  Avas 
Lord  Palmerston,  whose  almost  continuous  service  as  a  Cabinet 
567  Lord  minister  from  1809  to  1865  shows  the  esteem  in  which 
Palmerston  he  was  held,  first  by  the  Tories  and  later  by  the  Whigs. 
He  was  a  self-confident,  independent,  rather  aggressive  man, 
who  found  difficulty  in  working  in  harinony  with  the  other 
members  of  the  ministi-y.  He  had  the  type  of  mind  which 
grasps  a  situation  quickly,  and  is  impatient  of  deliberation 
He  so  offended  the  queen  by  neglecting  to  consult  her  before 
taking  important  action,  and  by  modifying  his  plans  after 
they  had  received  her  approval,  that  in  1850  she  administered 
to  him  a  stinging  rebuke.  In  1854  he  was  even  forced  out 
of  office  because  of  his  failure  to  do  what  athletes  call  "  team 
work  ■' ;  but  he  soon  returned  with  added  strength,  for  he  had 
a  keen  knowledge  of  the  British  people  as  a  Avhole,  he  was  not 
too  high-minded  to  cater  to  their  desires,  and  his  successful 
foreign  policy  flattered  their  pride. 

On  the  heels  of  the  Reform  Bill,  as  a  natural  result  of  giving 
power  to  the  middle  classes,  followed  various  minor  reforms. 

,„     „     ■      Up  to  this  time  members  of  borough  corporations  held 
668.  Munic-        ^  . 

ipal  re-  their  position  for  life,  and  usually  elected  their  succes- 

form  (1835)  ^^^.^^  rj^j^^^  controlled  elections  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and,  as  their  meetings  were  secret,  corruption  naturally 
resulted.  Thej  often  possessed  special  monopoly  rights  under 
ancient  charters.     The  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835  provided 


rHK    IJKMOVAL    OF    ABUSES    (1820-1850)  487 

(1)  for  tlie  organization  of  two-chambered  "  city  "  governments, 
composed  of  aldermen  and  eonncilors  ;  (2)  for  the  division  of 
the  cities  into  wards ;  (o)  for  the  popnlar  ehn-tion  of  the 
otticers  of  corporations  by  the  people;  (4)  for  the  abolition 
of  special  trade  privileges. 

In  1834  the  entire  system  of  the  Poor  Law  was  revised, 
because  of  faults  in  its  administration,  which  tended  to  in- 
crease rather  than  to  cheek  pauperism.  Tlie  custom  559  social 
then  was  for  the  towns  to  distribute  small  sums  to  reforms 
poor  families,  supplementing  what  their  members  could  earn. 
Under  this  system  one  seventh  of  all  the  population  received 
poor-relief,  and  in  the  year  1817  £'12,000.000  was  thns  dis- 
tributed among  a  population  of  only  11,000.000.  By  the  act 
of  18.'i4,  no  relief  was  to  be  given  by  the  local  or  gen- 
eral government  to  any  able-bodied  person  except  in  work- 
houses. 

Up  to  this  time,  tlie  clergy  had  regularly  collected  tithes 
of  all  the  j)roduce  of  their  parishes  at  harvest  time,  from 
nonconformists  and  churclimen  alike;  but  in  1835  noncon- 
formists were  relieved  l)y  the  Tithe  and  Commutation  Act 
from  paying  tithes  of  produce  to  the  clergy  of  the  established 
church,  but  were  required  instead  to  pay  a  definite  rent  charge 
(or  land  tax)  in  money,  this  rent  being  based  on  the  average 
price  of  grain  during  a  definite  period. 

In  the  same  year,  1835,  measures  were  passed  authorizing  the 
jjublication  of  the  voting  lists  of  Parliament,  thns  enabling 
the  constituents  to  follow  the  conduct  of  their  representa- 
tives, aud  also  the  pul)lication  of  parliamentary  debates,  by 
which  the  publi(;  were  enlightened  on  general  i)olitical  ques- 
tions,   and  on    the  motives   and    a(ttions   of   the    government. 

Another  class  of  reforms  was  wholly  humanitarian  in  char- 
acter.    Such  was  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the        g„Q    ^^ 
British    dominions    in    1S.33.      The    industries    in    many     manitarian 
British   colonies    had    long   been  carried  on    larg«dy   by 


488  INTERNAL  DEVELOPMENT 

means  of  slave  labor,  although  the  courts  ruled  (1772)  that 
any  slave  who  set  foot  upon  the  soil  of  England  became 
thereby  a  free  man  while  in  England.  In  order  to  lessen  the 
shock  to  colonial  industries,  the  act  provided  that  the  manu- 
mitted slaves  should  remain  in  '•  apprenticeship  "  for  a  period 
varying  from  five  to  seven  years,  and  reimbursed  the  slave 
owners  for  the  damage  to  their  interests  by  the  payment 
of  £20,000,000.  In  1833  the  child-slaves  in  the  factories  had 
their  houi'S  of  labor  reduced  from  as  high  as  eighteen  to 
twelve  hours  a  day.  The  criminal  code,  too,  was  made  less 
merciless,  by  the  abolition  of  the  death  penalty  for  a  hundred 
minor  crimes  in  1823 ;  and  in  1844  beginnings  were  made  of  a 
system  of  prison  reform,  which  included  attempts  to  educate 
and  transform  the  convict  from  a  scourge  to  a  useful  member 
of  society. 

Until  the  year  1833,  all  elementary  education  in  England 
was  carried  on  wholly  in  private  schools,  church  schools,  or 

schools  endowed  by  charitable  persons.     Only  one  child 

571.  State  .       ■,  ,       i-  \,   .  m  r. 
aid  to             m  four  received  any  schooling  whatever,     ihe  year  atter 

education  ^|^g  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill,  Parliament  appropriated 
£20,000  to  aid  communities  to  build  schoolhouses  (1833). 
Four  years  later  a  Department  of  Education  was  formed,  and 
was  intrusted  with  a  much  larger  sum,  to  be  expended  on 
deserving  schools.  This,  of  course,  involved  a  system  of  gov- 
ernment inspection.  The  department  used  this  grant  to  aid 
certain  colleges,  to  provide  for  the  training  of  teachers  and  the 
building  of  new  schools  where  needed,  and  to  increase  the 
salaries  of  teachers. 

Meanwhile,  the  laboring  classes  discovered  the   sources  of 
their  power,  and  through  the   organization  of   trades   unions 

sousrht  to  better  their  condition  as  regards  wages,  hours 

572.  Eise  ^  i  -i  i        t 

of  trades        of  labor,  and  protection  from  injury  while  at  work,     iso- 

^^^°^^  lated  unions  were  formed  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 

but    existing   laws   against   combinations    (which    were   then 


THK    REMOVAL   i  >F    ABUSES    (1820-1850)  489 

deemed  injurious  to  the  public  weal)  hampered  their  growth. 
In  1824-1825  these  laws  were  repealed;  and  thereafter  the 
growth  of  trades  unions  was  very  rapid,  especially  after  the 
passage  of  the  Reform  Bill,  and  again  at  the  time  of  the  sec- 
ond Chartist  agitation  (§  o7.~>).  This  growth  was  aided  by 
the  steady  development  of  the  factory  system,  which  massed 
many  thousands  of  artisans  pursuing  the  same  trade  in  a 
single  large  town. 

At  the  same  time,  other  forces  were  tending  to  stimulate 
England's  manufacturing  industries.     From  1802  to  1820  Tel- 
ford and  Macadam   were  introducing  everywhere  their     573    g^. 
improved  method  of  road-making,  to  the  great  advantage  roads, 

S  t€  3.  HI  ^03.  ts 

of  commerce.     The  first  steam  railway  in  England,  run-  and  the 

ning  from    Stockton   to  Darlington,  was  built  in  1825;      telegraph 
five  years  later  an  important  line  was  built  from  ^fanchester 
to  Liverpool ;  and  in  18o7  came  the  first  passage  of  ships  (the  • 

Sirius  and  the  GrecU  Weatem,  from  Bristol)  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  wholly  by  steam  power  —  an  event  which  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  creation  of  a  regular  transatlantic  steamship  serv- 
ice. The  needle  telegraph,  patented  by  Cooke  and  Wheatston 
in  1837,  was  put  into  general  use  through  the  agency  of  the 
Electric  Telegraph  Company  in  1846.  Thus  the  locomotive, 
the  steam sliip,  and  the  electric  telegraph  were  the  gifts  of  the 
first  half  of  the  century  to  the  last  half. 

During  tlie  early  part  of  the  century,  Ireland  drifted  into  a 
"  Tithe  ^Var  *'  against  the  hated  church  establishment,  wliich 
was  maintained  on  a  large  and  wasteful  scale,  although  574.Eeform 
Protestants  were  numerous  only  in  Ulster.  There  were  "^  Ireland 
160  Church  of  England  parishes,  maintained  at  a  yearly  tost 
of  £117.0<">0,  which  contained  not  a  single  Protestant.  In  the 
year  18.32,  9000  crimes,  of  which  242  were  murders,  showed 
the  general  discontent  existing  among  the  people.  Tithes 
absolutely  could  not  be  colliMted,  for  the  collectors  were  mur- 
dered and  the  police  driven  off. 


490  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

The  government  resorted  to  severe  repressive  measures: 
political  meetings  were  strictly  prohibited ;  persons  charged 
with  political  crimes  were  taken  to  England  for  trial ;  and  the 
Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  again  and  again  suspended.  All  these 
repressive  measures  were  useless.  So  long  as  Irish  Catholics 
were  ruled  wholly  by  Protestants,  were  forced  to  pay  tithes  to 
Protestant  clergymen,  and  could  obtain  an  education  only  by 
abjuring  their  faith,  so  long  was  disorder  certain  to  continue. 

After  a  long  time  the  English  statesmen  began  to  relax,  in- 
stead of  tightening,  the  bonds  of  Ireland.  The  first  reform 
attempted  was  the  reduction  of  the  Irish  church  establish- 
ment in  1833,  by  lessening  the  number  of  the  higher  ecclesias- 
tics. After  five  years  more  of  agitation,  the  Tithe  War  was 
partly  settled  by  an  act  providing  that  government  should 
pay  to  the  clergy  in  Ireland  the  sum  due  them  for  tithes,  and 
should  collect  its  equivalent  in  the  form  of  a  land  tax. 

Although  Russell's   Reform  Bill    enfranchised   the  middle 

classes,  it  left  the  poorer  workingmen  still  at  the  mercy  of  what 

575.  Pro-      they   considered   an   aristocratic    government.      Shortly 

posed  after  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria,  a  movement  was 

"  Chartist  * 

reform  started  for  the  adoption  of  the  so-called  ''  People's  Char- 

ter" (1838),  which  included  in  its  provisions  six  reforms: 
(1)  equalization  of  parliamentary  districts;  (2)  abolition  of 
property  qualifications  for  seats  in  Parliament ;  (3)  adoption 
of  manhood  suffrage ;  (4)  payment  of  salaries  to  members  of 
the  lower  house;  (5)  voting  by  ballot;  (6)  annual  elections 
to  Parliament.  Agitation  was  widespread  about  1840,  died 
out  as  prosperity  increased,  and  was  again  revived  in  1848,  in 
sympathy  with  the  revolutionary  spirit  .then  rife  in  western 
Europe.  Enormous  mass  meetings  were  called,  and  a  plan  was 
formed  for  presenting  to  Parliament  a  petition  containing  a 
million  signatures.  But  the  petition  evoked  little  enthusiasm, 
the  mass  meetings  ended  in  talk,  and  the  entire  movement 
collapsed  before  the  end  of  the  year. 


TIIK    HKMnVAI,    nK    AHl'SES    (1820-1850) 


491 


TliP  working  classes  were    more    successful    in  their    flight 
to  sfcurc  a  cheaper  food  supply,  for  in  this  case  tliey  had  tlie 
support  of   the  wealthy  nuuuifacturing  and  conmiercial       5^5    ^^ 
classes.      Since  the   farming   population  increased  only      corn  laws 
one  twelfth  as  fast  as  the  nmnufacturing  population,  it  is  clear 
that  the  price  of  food  would  continually  rise,  unless  foreign 


An  KN<ii.isn  Fakm  11<>ise. 


f(Mj(l  stuffs  were  freel}^  imported;  but  ff)reign  grain  was  artifi- 
cially excluded  by  sweej)ing  ''corn  laws''  passed  near  the  close 
of  the  Napoleoni(r  wars.  Under  these  laws,  no  wheat  was  to 
1m'  iiiiportt^d  so  long  as  grain  was  selling  uml'-r  Sii  vliilliiitrs  a 
quarter. 

Against  the  Whigs,  who  refused  to  remedy  these  laws,  an 
agitation  began  as  early  as  18.'i7.  Some  manufacturers  organ- 
ized an  Anti-C'orn-T.aw  League,  under  the  leadership  of  Richard 
Cobdeu  (a  successful  calico  printer  and  a  student  of  econondc 


492  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

problems)  and  of  John  Bright  (a  manufacturer,  of  Quaker 
ancestry,  a  man  of  notably  high  character,  and  a  line  orator).^ 
Pamphlets  were  published,  songs  were  composed,  mass  meet- 
ings were  held.  Every  year  the  League  secured  the  intro- 
duction of  a  bill  in  Parliament  for  the  abolition  of  the  Corn 
Laws,  but  it  as  regularly  suffered  defeat  until  Robert  Peel  be- 
came prime  minister  in  1844. 

Peel's  policy  was  a  compromise  between  free  trade  and 
protection.      He  believed,  he  said,  in  buying  in  the  cheapest 

,,     market  and  selling  in  the  dearest  market,  except  in  the 

bit  .     X  661  S 

compromise   case  of    grain,  sugar,  and  timber.     He  also  believed  in 
tariff  direct    instead    of  indirect    taxation.      Hence   in    1842 

he  procured  the  reduction  of  revenue  duties  on  many  articles, 
and  substituted  a  small  income  tax;  in  1845  he  removed. the 
duty  from  four  hundred  and  thirty  other  articles,  and  increased 
the  income  tax ;  and  the  same  year  he  devised  a  scheme  for  a 
sliding  duty  on  grain,  which  decreased  as  the  price  of  grain 
increased.  This  measure  relieved  purchasers  of  food  stuffs 
a  little,  but  it  caused  great  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  grain ; 
for  speculators  artificially  raised  the  price  of  British  grain  in 
order  to  decrease  the  amount  of  the  duty. 

While  affairs  were  in  this  unsettled  condition,  came  the  bad 
season  of  1845.     The  wheat  crop  was  ruined  by  heavy  rains, 
578.  Total     and  in  Ireland  (whose  soil  in  the    best  seasons  suffers 
"^f^h^^  from    poor  drainage)    not  only  the  grain,  but   also  the 

corn  laws  potatoes  upon  which  the  poorer  classes  relied  for  their 
sustenance,  were  utterly  ruined.  Starvation  was  frequent  all 
over  the  island.  The  British  government  established  relief 
works  at  a  cost  of  £1,000,000  a  month,  but  refused  to  "  inter- 
fere with  the  regular  course  of  trade  in  food  stuffs."  It  thus 
drew    laborers    from    the   fields,  and   at   the   same   time    en- 

iThe  government  uuintentionally  aided  the  free-trade  propaganda  by  its 
adoption  of  the  penny-post  system  (183!)),  by  means  of  which  the  publications 
of  the  League  could  be  disseminated  far  and  wide  at  small  cost. 


TllK    ini.MOVAL   OF    AI{L\SKS    (1820-1850) 


493 


courageil  speculators  in  foreign  grains.  But  even  if  tlie 
corn  laws  had  not  put  the  price  of  food  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  poverty-stricken  sufferers,  it  would  have  been  impossible 
to  create  a  sufficiently  rapid  How  of  foreign  grain  into  the 
British  Isles  to  nuike  good  the  shortage.  At  last  the  con- 
science of  the  British  nation  was  awakened  by  the  terrible 
suffering  in  Ireland  ;  Lord  John  Russell  declared  his  conver- 
sion to  free  trade  in  grain;  Peel  did  the  same,  and  resigned 
his  office,  but  was  immediately  reappointed,  since  the  champi- 
ons of  the  corn  laws  could  not  secure  a  majority  in  the  lower 
house;  Wellington,  as  before  in  similar  crises,  withdrew  his 
opposition ;  and  the  corn  laws  were  practically  abolished  in 
184G. 

The  method  adopted  was  a  rapid  reduction  of  duties,  in  three 
successive  years,  to  a  tixed  rate  of  one  shilling  a  quarter.  It 
was  feared  that  so  abrupt  a  change  would  ruin  the  farmers ; 
but  the  steady  growth  of  manufactures  caused  such  an  in- 


C.\STI.E  OK   KOMS,    KlI.LAKNEY,    IkEI-A.NU. 

wai.kkk's  kn<;.  hist. — 30 


494  INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 

creased  demand  in  the  towns  for  milk,  meat,  straw,  and  other 
agricultural  products  as  to  make  good  the  loss  of  profits  on 
grain.  In  1849  came  the  total  repeal  of  the  navigation  acts, 
and  Great  Britain  enjoyed  free  trade,  except  for  certain  duties 
for  revenue  only. 

The  great  famine  of  1845-1846,  which  converted  the  British 
into  a  free-trade  nation,  caused  untold    suffering  in   Ireland. 
579.  Effect    Parliament  voted  £10,000,000  for  the  relief  of  distress, 
ofthe'fam-   ^^^^  ^|^jg  ^^^^^  ^^^^  fa^i-  ^^^y  little.     In  the  four  years  from 
ine  year  '  .  n  -r     ■,       ^    -,  ^ 

on  Ireland     1846  to  1850,  the  population  of  Ireland  decreased  more 

than  two  millions,  by  death  or  emigration.  Suffering  led  to 
crime  and  pauperism.  Bents  could  no  longer  be  collected 
from  the  starving  tenants,  nor  could  other  tenants  be  secured 
if  these  were  evicted.  Many  Irish  landlords,  hard  pressed  for 
money,  sold  their  estates  to  wealthy  Englishmen  and  Scotch- 
men, and  thus  was  intensified  the  most  serious  cause  of  trouble 
in  Ireland,  the  "  absentee  landlordism  "  which  was  to  form 
the  problem  of  the  following  half  century. 

The  long-repressed  forces  of  reform  won  many  important 
victories  between  1820  and  1850.  The  common  people,  massed 
580  Sum-  ^'^  factory  towns,  learned  the  power  that  dwells  in  num- 
mary bers  and  in  unity,  and  the  governing  class  grudgingly 
yielded  in  the  face  of  threatened  revolution.  Boman  Catholics 
secured  political  equality  with  Protestants.  The  rotten 
boroughs  —  ever  present  source  of  political  corruption  —  were 
abolished,  and  coal  and  iron  regions  gained  their  due  influence 
in  Parliament.  The  remaining  boroughs  received  a  popular 
instead  of  an  autocratic  government.  Against  the  opposition 
of  the  old  landowning  aristocracy,  the  navigation  acts  and 
the  corn  laws  were  repealed,  so  that  the  people  might  have 
food  in  plenty  to  eat,  materials  in  plenty  to  manufacture,  and 
customers  in  plenty  to  buy  their  goods.  With  the  advent  of 
democracy,  the  child,  the  slave,  the  pauper,  even  the  criminal, 


Tin:  i;i:mi'\.\i.  "I    aiu'sks  (i82n-i8.'.o)  405 

botjan  to  receive  rational  treatment  and  protection.  Irelaml 
aldiie  —  misled  and  misunderstood  —  tailed  to  gain  some 
measure  of  freedom  during  this   period. 

TOPICS 

(\)   lli)\v   loiif  aid   the   luT.soiial    union   of    Great   Britain   and    Suggestive 

^  tODlCS 

Hanover  continue  ?  (2)  Do  you  think  tiie  connection  was,  on  the 
whole,  benelicial  or  harmful  to  Great  Britain  ?  (3)  Show  why  it 
was  thouj;ht  improper  for  a  Catholic  It)  become  regent  of  the  king- 
dom. (4)  What  motives  intiuenced  the  Lords  to  resist  the  Reform 
Bill  of  1832  ?  (5)  Slate  exactly  what  is  meant  by  a  •'  ten-pound  " 
householder.  ((5)  Review  the  successive  st€ps  by  which  the  free- 
dom of  the  English  press  became  complete.  (7)  Name  all  the  con- 
ditions you  can  think  of  which  tended  to  prevent  justice  being  done 
to  Ireland.  (8)  Show  how  each  clause  of  the  People's  Charter 
would  have  strengthenetl  the  political  power  of  the  lower  classes. 
(0)  Mention  all  the  clas.ses  which  the  corn  laws  injured,  and  all 
which  they  benefited.  (10)  How  was  it  po.ssible  to  pa.ss  corn-law 
legislation  through  Parliament? 

(IP)  The  career  of  Daniel  O'Connell.  (12)  The  great  liberal  Search 
movement  on  the  Continent  in  1848  ("  The  Year  of  Revolutions'  ). 
(13)  Some  Com  Law  lihijmrx.  (14)  Wellington's  services  to 
England  as  a  pt)liiical  leader  after  1828.  (\'t)  Scenes  in  Ireland 
in  184«!.  (10)  The  fir.st  English  railway.  (17)  A  typical  ''rotten 
borough."  (18)  Character  of  William  IV.  (19)  The  early  life  of 
Queen  Victoria.     (2U)  The  monster  charter  petition. 


REFERENCES 

See    map,  pp.   384,  38.j ;    Poole,   Ilislnriml   J//rr.s\   maps    xxiii.    Geography 
x.xiv.  xxviii. 

Bri"ht.  I/istoni  of  Emjlnnd,  III.  P'lCJ-l.'JO,  1376-13!tA,  1401-  Secondary 
14ln,  MlC-HCl,  IV.  1-ii,  14-2*!,  ;',l-4i2,  7H-141,  lii4-17f<,  208-228; 
Gardiner,  St,i,ln,rs  History,  880-882,  884-887,  801-020.  022-043; 
Ransome,  A<lr.iiir,,l  Histonj.  020-081  ;  Greene,  Slmrt  Hhtonj  (epi- 
logue) ;  Montai;ue,  Ehnnuts  of  CmislUutiniinl  llistnrij,  cii.  xiii.  ; 
Gibbins,  lixlnitlrinl  llistonj.  18G-22:> ;  Cheyney,  InlroiUirtinn  to 
Iiifhixtri'il  Ilistonj,  ch.  ix.  ;  J.  McCartliy,  'Hit-  K/iorl,  i,j  liif„riit, 
—  IliMonj  of  till-  Four  ar,,i;i,s,  dis.  Ixiii.-lxxxix..  — ///.sf-ir;/  <>/ 
Our  Oirii  Timis,  chs.  i.  ii.  iv.  v.  vii.  ix.  xii.  xiii.-xv.  xviii.,  —  Oulliiir.'i 
of  Ihi'   Ili.ilonj  of  Irdaiiil,  eh.  viii.  ;  Powell  and  Tout.  lliMoi'j  >>/ 


topics 


authorities 


496 


INTERNAL   DEVELOPMENT 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


England^  871-912  ;  Oman,  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
chs.  iv.-vi. ;  S.  Walpole,  History  of  England  since  IS  15,  chs. 
vii.-xiv. ;  Kent,  The  English  Badicals,  ch.  iii. ;  Jenks,  Parlia- 
mentary England,  ch.  xi. ;  Brewer,  Student's  Hume,  chs.  xxxiv. 
XXXV. ;  Taswell-Langmead,  Constitutional  History,  599-610,  623- 
631 ;  Molesworth,  History  of  the  Beform  Bill ;  Lawless,  Ireland, 
chs.  Iv.-lvii. ;  Morris,  Ireland,  1494-1868,  289-341  ;  Edwards, 
Wales,  ch.  xxvi.  ;  Routledge,  Popular  Progress,  ch.  xxii. ;  Duffy, 
Young  Ireland;  Hamilton,  Daniel  CConnell;  Macdonagh,  Life 
of  O^Connell,  chs.  vii.-xxi. ;  Morley,  Life  of  Cobden,  —  Life  of 
Gladstone,  I. ;  Thursfield,  Peel ;  Parker,  Sir  Bobert  Peel ;  W.  O. 
Morris,  Wellington,  318-375 ;  Taylor,  The  Factory  System  and  the 
Factory  Acts,  chs.  iii.  iv. ;  Besant,  Fifty  Yeai's  Ago  ;  Paul,  His- 
tory of  Modern  England,  I.  chs.  i.  iii.  vi.  vii ;  Goldwiu  Smith, 
The  United  Kingdom,  11.  chs.  viii.  ix.  See  New  England  History 
Teachers'  Association,  Syllabus,  263-264. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  nos.  260-266  ;  Colby, 
Selections  from  the  Sources,  nos.  114-117  ;  Kendall,  Source-Book, 
nos.  108-109,  128-131,  134-138  ;  Sir  W.  Scott,  Journal,  1825-1832  ; 
Fitzpatrick,  Correspondence  of  0'  Connell ;  Harding  and  Peel,  Sir 
Bobert  Peel. 

Bates  and  Coman,  English  History  told  by  English  Poets,  385- 
411  ;  Edgeworth,  The  Absentee  ;  Dickens,  Nicholas  Nickleby,  — ■ 
Oliver  Twist ;  Gaskell,  Mary  Barton  ;  Eliot,  Feliz  Holt,  the  Badi- 
cal ;  Hughes,  Tom  Broivn's  School  Days  ;  Keary,  Castle  Daly ; 
Kingsley,  Alton  Locke  ;  Reade,  Put  Yourself  in  His  Plate  ;  Trol- 
lope,  Castle  Bichmond. 


(IIAL'TKK    XXXV. 

FOKEKiX   AND  COLONIAL  INTERESTS   (1820-1858) 

Aftkk  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  inonarchs  of  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia  in  1815  formed  a  "  Holy  Alliance,'*  which  claimed 
to  be  a  league  to  make  the  Christian  religion  a  standard  581.  Eng- 
for  the  behavior  of  states.  Its  real  object  was  stated  in  ^4^*^2017 
a  minor  clause,  by  which  the  rulers  agreed  to  "  afford  one  Alliance 
another  assistance  in  all  cases."  In  other  words,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  defend  absolute  monarchy  against  democratic  move- 
ments. France  soon  joined  this  alliance,  but  Great  Britain 
held  aloof,  Lord  Castlereagh,  the  foreign  secretary,  declaring 
that  the  constitution  of  the  United  Kingdom  prevented  her 
from  joining  such  a  union.  Furthermore,  when  in  1823  the 
Holy  Alliance  was  planning  to  employ  its  forces  for  restoring 
to  Spain  her  revolted  colonies  in  Spanish  America,  Canning, 
who  had  succeeded  Castlereagh,  jjroposed  to  President  Monroe 
that  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  should  make  a  joint 
protest  against  this  action  ;  and  although  Monroe  preferred  to 
make  an  indejjendent  protest,  the  two  powers  acted  in  harmony 
in  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  Spanish  colonies. 

liehind    this    action   was   a   distrust   of   Russia  which    has 
ever  since  influenced  the  international  policy  of  (Jreat  Britain. 
In  1820  the  Greeks  began  an  agitation  for  throwing  off      ^^^    ^^^ 
the  rule  of  Turkey,  which  ha<l  been  marked  by  intoler-        land  and 
able  cruelty.     The  Russian  czars  had  long  coveted  the 
territory  of  Turkey  in  Enroi»e,  which  controlled  the  ])assage 
from  the  P>lack   Sea  to  the  M«'diterranean  ;  and  Russia  now 
aided  the  Greek  revolution,  hoping  thus  to  gain  .some  advantage 
which  wouM  bring  her  a  step  n»'arer  Constantinople. 

497 


498  GREATER    ENGLAND 

The  Greeks  appealed  to  England  for  aid,  dreading  lest  a 
war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  should  prove  their  own  de- 
struction ;  and  Canning,  rather  reluctantly,  agreed  to  act 
with  Russia  and  France  in  putting  pressure  upon  Turkey, 
believing  that  Russia  could  be  held  in  check  more  easily  as 
an  ally  than  as  a  foe.  As  the  sultan  remained  obstinate,  a 
fleet  of  British,  French,  and  Russian  war  ships  entered  the 
Bay  of  aSTavarino  in  October,  1827,  and  after  a  four  hours' 
fight  entirely  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet  of  twenty-eight  ships 
of  war.  The  Turks  hastened  to  make  peace  on  the  basis  of 
Greek  independence;  and  the  Pentarchy,  frightened  at  the 
bugbear  of  republicanism,  forced  on  the  new  state  a  monarch 
from  among  the  German  princes. 

Ten  years   later   England  was  threatened  with  a  revolt  in 

her  own  colony  of  Canada,  where  the  government  was  poorly 

adapted  to  local  conditions.     In  1791  the  younger  Pitt 
583.  Home  ^ 

Rule  in  the    had    created    separate    governments    for   the    lower   bt. 

Canadas         Lawrence  valley,  where  the  population  was  almost  wdiolly 

French  in  blood  and  traditions,  and  for  the  district  north  of 

the  Great  Lakes,  which  w^as  settled  almost  wholly  by  emigrants 

from  England  and  Scotland,  or  by  loyalists  who  removed  from 

the   United   States   after   the   treaty    of   1783.      This   policy 

tended  to  perpetuate   instead  of  to  destroy  race  distinctions, 

<and  led  to  constant  quarrels  between  the  legislature  of  Lower 

Canada  and  the  officers  of  the  crown.     In  1837  revolts  against 

British   rule   broke   out;    and,  though   they  were    easily    put 

down  by  military  force,  the  lesson  of  the  American  Revolution 

was  not  forgotten,  and  it  was  thought  best  to  reorganize  the 

government  of  Canada.     The  result  was  the  legislative  union 

of  the  two  provinces  in  1840,  into  one  self-governing  colony ; 

later  (1867-1873)  the  tw^o  provinces  were  united  w^ith  others 

in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  with  a  federal  government. 

Meanwdiile,  on   the  other  side  of  the  globe,  Australia  was 

being  rescued  from  the  fate  to  ^vhich  she  had  hitherto  seemed 


FOKEKiN    AND    CULU.NIAL    IN TKKKSTS    ( 1S2<»-18.J8)      4l>9 

to  be  destined  as  a  convict  colony.  Now  many  industrious 
and  upright  colonists  from  Irt-huul  ;ind  Scotland  were  emi- 
eratini?  thither  to  utilize  the  rich  •,'razin-,'  lands,  and  the  .    „  , 

'' ticket-of-leave  men'"  (as  the  convicts  were  called)  be-  nization  of 
came  unwelcome.  About  1SS~},  when  there  were  80,000  Australia 
Europeans  in  Australia,  New  South  Wales  began  a  fight 
against  the  system  of  transportation  for  convicts.  She 
won  a  victory  for  herself,  but  convicts  continued  to  be  sent 
to  Western  Australia  and  Tasmania  until  the  discovery  of  the 
rich  gold  fields  (I80I),  which  doubled  the  population  in  two 
years,  and  made  Australia  an  unfit  place  for  convicts.  In 
18o7  a  penal  act  was  passed  which  practically  abolished 
'*ti-ansportation."  During  the  decade  from  18r»()to  I860  all  the 
Australian  colonies  (New  South  Wales,  founded  1778;  Tas- 
mania, 18l'."»;  Western  Australia,  18L'0;  South  Australia,  1834; 
New  Zealand,  1841 ;  Victoria,  18r>l ;  Queensland,  1859)  began 
a  new  and  vigorous  life,  most  of  them  under  self-governing 
constitutions.  In  11)01  all  except  New  Zealand  were  joined  in 
the  federal  iniion  called  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 

It  was  during  this  period  that  Great  Britain  first  gained  a  foot- 
hold upon  <'hinese  territory.      Opium  was  ]U'oduced  in  large 

quantities  in  India,  and  found  a  market  in  ("hinese  ports.    ,„^    „    . 
*  '  ...  585.  Begin- 

In  18.'?9  the  rhinese   government  prohibited  the  inipor-   nings  in  the 

tation  of   the  dr\ig.  to  the  great  distress  of  the   I'.riti.sh  far  East 

mercliants  who  were  getting  rich  from  the  trattic.      They  con- 
tinued to  import  ojiium,  and  appealed  to  the  home  government 
to  supp<»rt  them;    but  they  were    infornifd    that   ''Her       Ranxomp, 
Majesty's  government  can  not  interfere  for  the  purpose        yn.Tand 
of  enabling  British   subjects  to  violate  tin-  laws  of  tlie  960 

country  with  wliich  they  trade." 

Before  this  message  reached  ('hiuii.  liif  <  hinese  government 
had  searched  l»ritish  v«*ss«'ls  in  Chinese  ]>orts,  ami  hail  confis- 
cated and  destroyed  opium  valued  at  dtlOOd.  In  spite  of  its 
prevjous  dictum,  the  ministry  declared  this  action  an  insult 


500  GREATER   ENGLAND 

to  the  British  government,  and  dispatched  a  fleet  to  Canton. 
After  a  one-sided  war,  China  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  by 
the  cession  of  the  island  of  Hongkong  (which  later  became  the 
greatest  British  stronghold  in  the  far  East),  by  throwing  open 
five  Chinese  ports  to  British  trade,  and  by  paying  an  indemnity 
of  £4,500,000  (1842). 

Meanwhile  the  specter   of    Russian  aggression   reappeared 
to  terrify  the    British   government.     About    1832  Persia  and 

586.  The  Afghanistan  (one  of  which  commanded  access  to  India 
Kabul  fiasco  by  way  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  the  other  by  way  of  the 

valley  of  the  Indus)  fell  under  the  influence  of  Russia,  and  a  few 
years  later  the  czar  undertook  to  protect  the  sultan  of  Turkey 
against  his  rebellious  vassal  the  viceroy  of  Egypt.  To  fore- 
stall danger,  Palmerston,  the  British  foreign  secretary, 
induced  the  Great  Powers  to  guarantee  the  independence  of 
Turkey  (1841);  and  Lord  Auckland,  governor  general  of  India, 
imposed  upon  Afghanistan  a  ruler  favorable  to  Great  Britain 
(1839).  In  1842  the  deposed  ruler  stirred  up  a  revolt  in  Kabul, 
and  forced  the  small  British  garrison  to  agree  to  evacuate  the 
country ;  but  the  natives  attacked  the  soldiers  on  their  march 
from  Kabul  to  the  frontier,  and  out  of  4000  fighting  men  and 
12,000  civilians,  only  one  man  escaped.  In  1843  an  avenging 
army  invaded  Afghanistan,  destroyed  the  great  bazaar  of  Kabul, 
rescued  the  women  who  had  been  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
Afghans  the  previous  year,  and  then  withdrew  from  the 
country. 

This  invading  army  passed  through  Sind  without  permission 
of  the  native  chiefs,  wdio  believed  that  the  fiasco  in  Afghan- 

587.  Con-  istan  proved  the  weakness  of  the  Indian  government, 
wansionln  ^^^^  therefore  at  once  plunged  into  war.  The  contest 
India  was  short,  and  the  victories  of  Sir  Charles  Napier  led 

to  the  annexation  of  Sind  in  1843.  The  Punjab  (the  district 
including  the  middle  course  of  the  Indus  and  its  tributaries) 
was  occupied  by  a  race  of  fierce  warriors  called   the  Sikhs, 


fuui:i(;n  and  colonial  iMLiiESTs  O'^-^^-iy^y)    ^01 

who  had  several  times  invacled  llimUistan.  In  1848  they 
ventured  on  a  fresh  invasion,  but  met  with  a  erusiiing  defeat, 
and  the  Punjab  was  added  to  the  British  dominions.  The 
Sikhs  became  hiter  among  the  most  valiant  of  the  warriors 
enrolled  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 

In  South  Africa,  also,  the  problem  of  British  control  over 
alien  races  proved  hard  to  solve.  When  Cape  Colony  was 
seized  by  the  British  a  second  time,  in  1806,  its  Euro-  ^^ 

pean  population  consisted  of  about  27,000  persons,  mostly  cuities  in 
of  Dutch  descent,  known  as  Boers,  or  "farmers."  Their  ^^^  °  °^^ 
business  —  stock  farming — kept  them  scattered  and  ignorant; 
their  distance  from  the  seat  of  government  in  Europe  made 
them  impatient  of  control ;  their  struggle  for  existence  against 
savages  and  wild  beasts  made  them  sturdy  fighters ;  and  their 
practice  of  slaveholding  made  them  cruel  in  their  treatment  of 
the  natives. 

This  last  trait  soon  brought  them  into  conflict  Avith  the  Eng- 
lish missionaries  in  South  Africa,  and  later  with  the  colonial 
government.  The  quarrel  was  intensified  in  1833-1834,  when 
slavery  was  abolished  in  all  l^>ritish  colonies;  for  the  Dutch 
lost  30,000  slaves,  and  received  from  the  indemnity  fund  fas 
they  claimed)  less  than  half  their  actual  value. 

During  the  same  year  a  war  witli  tlie  native  race  of  Kaffirs 
led  to  the  annexation  of  certain  territories  on  the  frontiers,  in 
order  to  secure  a  better  natural  boundary  against  depredations. 
The  British  government  believed  that  the  whites  had  provoked 
the  war,  and  therefore  restored  to  the  Kaffirs  their  territory, 
and  thus  further  embittered  the  Dutch. 

The  Dutch  farmers  now  decided  to  seek  new  homes  where 
they  could  be  free  from  British  control.     During  18:i()  and  1837 
eight  thousand  Boers  loaded  their  household  goods  upon       589.  Boer 
ox-carts,  "  inspanned  "  their  oxen,  and  "trekked  "  north-     ^J^o^cape 
ward  into  unsettled  districts  (map,  p.  ">27)  — one  between  Colony 

the  Orange  River  and  the  Vaal  River,  the  other  between   the 


502  GREATER   ENGLAND 

Vaal  and  the  Limpopo.      "They  were  practically  independent, 

for  the  colonial  government  did  not  attempt  to  interfere  with 

Bryee,  Im-     their   internal    affairs.      But   Britain  still  claimed  that 

pressionsoS    ^-^^       were,  in  strict  intendment  of  law,  British  snbiects,^ 

South  Af-  J  ^ 

rica,  128         and  she  gave  no  recognition  to  the  government  they  set 

up."  Between  1838  and  1842  a  large  body  migrated  into 
Natal ;  but  later,  finding  that  Great  Britain  claimed  sover- 
eignty over  that  territory,  most  of  them  returned  to  the  interior. 
In  1852,  when  Cape  Colony  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
Kaffirs,  the  Boers  north  of  the  Vaal  induced  Great  Britain  to 
conclude  the  Sand  River  Convention,  by  which  they  secured 
their  independence,  on  condition  that  slavery  should  not  be 
tolerated  in  the  Trans-Vaal,  or  country  "  across  the  Vaal."  In 
1854,  by  the  Bloemfontein  Convention,  similar  concessions 
were  made  to  the  Orange  Free  State,  between  the  Orange  and 
the  Vaal  River. 

Ever  since  her  check  in  1841,  Russia  had  been  strengthen- 
ing her   armies  and   navies,  especially  in  the  Black  Sea,  for 
590.  Re-        an  attack  upon  Turkey.     In  1852  she  seemed  to  see  her 
the'Eastern  opportunity  in  a  dispute  over  the  Christian  sanctuaries 
question        at  Jerusalem,  which  the  sultan  decided  in  favor  of  the 
Latin  as  against  the  Greek  Church.     The  czar  made  this  de- 
cision an  excuse  for  demanding  a  recognition  of  his  right  to  a 
protectorate  over  all  Greek  Christians  in  the  Turkish  Empire, - 
but  betrayed  his  real  purpose  by  telling  the  British  minister 
that  Turkey  was  "a  sick  man,  a  very  sick  man,"  and  propos- 
ing to  divide  the  spoils  in  case  anything  should  happen  to  the 
invalid  (January,  1853).     Great  Britain  refused  the  bribe,  but 
the  czar  felt  strong  enough  to  act  alone.     In  July  a  Russian 
army  invaded   Wallachia,  and   in  November   a  Russian  fleet 
destroyed  a  Turkish  squadron  at  Sinope. 

1  At  this  time  it  was  still  a  maxim  of  English  common  law  that  no  person 
could  strip  himself  of  his  nationality. 

2  By  an  old  treaty  (1774)  Turkey  promised  Russia  "  to  jiroteet  constantly  the 
Christian  religion  and  its  churches." 


FouKUJN  AM)  Colonial  lntekests  (ih-jo-isoh)     503 

Great  I»ritain  was  in  a  ferment.  The  premier  (another  name 
for  prime  minister),  Lord  Aberdeen,  was  averse  to  war,  and  Mr. 
Gladstone  held  that  the  czar's  claim  was  implied  in  the  treaty 
of  1774;  but  the  English  merchants  could  not  bear  to  think  of 
Russia  in  possession  of  Constantinople,  and  (since  mercantile 
interests  were  supreme  in  Parliament)  Aberdeen  was  forced  out 
of  uttice  and  the  warlike  Palmerston  became  prime  minister. 

To  show  why  Russia  should  not  be  allowed  to  hold  Con- 
stantinople wa.s  easy.  Her  resources  and  population  (the 
largest  in  Europe)  were  subject  to  the  will  of  an  auto- 
cratic and  very  ambitious  ruler.  With  these  resources  tentous 
he  could  easily  create  upon  the  Black  Sea  an  enormous  Kussia 
fleet,  for  which  that  sea  would  constitute  a  vast  inland  harbor 
with  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Dardanelles  —  at  their  narrowest 
point  less  than  a  mile  wide  —  as  its  only  outlet.  The  alarmists 
in  England  pictured  the  Russian  fleet,  when  created,  as  steam- 
ing into  the  Mediterranean  and  cutting  off  communication 
with  the  East,  while  Russian  forces  were  operating  against 
India,  Persia,  and  the  far  East,  the  chief  sources  of  com- 
merce and  wealth  for  centuries  to  come ;  or  as  seizing  Gibral- 
tar and  ravaging  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  of  Greece,  Italy, 
and  France,  in  case  of  a  European  war.  If  shattered  by  an 
overwhelming  coalition  of  the  other  powers,  said  they,  the 
fleet  could  easily  retire  into  the  Black  Sea,  and  there  reequip 
and  refit  in  a  refuge  safe  from  any  possibility  of  attack. 
Furthermore,  it  was  clear  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  was 
worth  a  pound  of  cure ;  for  if  the  czar  should  once  eff"ect  a 
lodgment  in  Constantinople,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to 
e.xpel  him. 

Influenced    by  such  arguments,  Great    Britain  and    France 
formed  an  alliance  with  Turkey  in  March.  18.")4.     After 
some  minor  oj>erations,  it  was  decided  to  attack  the  great         Crimean 
Russian  naval  depot  and  arsenal  at  Sebastopol,  near  the  ^^ 

southern    end    of   the    peninsula   of   the    Crimea.      An   allied 


504 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


F^Mf^ 


SEA     OF 


B      L      A      (^ 


20        40        60        SO 


The  Crimea. 


army  landed  twenty  miles  north  of  this  fortress  in  September, 
1853,  and,  advancing  southward,  began  a  siege  which  lasted 
nearly  a  year.     In  battles  at  Alma,  Balaklava,  Inkerman,  and 

at  Sebastopol  itself,  the 
allies  won  great  glory ; 
but  the  campaign  as  a 
whole  was  grossly  mis- 
managed. The  British 
War  Department  had  be- 
come inefficient  during 
the  long  period  of  peace. 
The  officers  in  command 
were  weak,  the  soldiers, 
though  brave,  were  badly  disciplined,  the  commissary  and 
hospital  service  was  hopelessly  disorganized.  Cholera,  cold, 
bad  food,  and  lack  of  medicines  took  half  the  British  army 
from  the  ranks. 

In  Janua,ry,  1855,  Sardinia  came  to  the  help  of  the  allies 
with  15,000  men.  In  February  the  warlike  Czar  Nicholas  died, 
and  wlien  Sebastopol  fell  six  months  later,  his  successor,  Alex- 
ander III.,  decided  to  make  peace  and  bide  his  time.  By  the 
treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  Russia  abandoned  her  claim  to  a  pro- 
tectorate, on  the  sultan's  promise  to  guard  the  interests  of 
Greek  Christians  in  his  dominions;  Russia  and  Turkey  re- 
turned their  conquests ;  Russia  dismantled  her  fortresses  and 
reduced  her  fleets  on  the  Black  Sea;  the  Dardanelles  and  the 
Danube  River  Avere  thrown  open  to  ships  of  all  nations  in  times 
of  peace ;  and  all  the  Great  Powers  engaged  to  respect  the 
independence  and  territorial  integrity  of  Turkey. 

Hardly  was  the  Eastern  question  temporarily  settled  when 

,„„    «     3-     the  Palmerston  government  was  called  upon  to  face  a  still 

593.  Condi-  . 

tions  in  greater  danger.    The  discerning  had  long  seen  that  India, 

India(1857)    ^-^^^  -^^  population  of  180,000,000  people,  could  not  be 
ruled  indefinitely  by  the  East  India  Company.     In  the  first 


FOREIGN    AND   COLONIAL    INTKKKSTS    (1820-1858)      505 

place,  the  company,  bv  its  most  beneficial  measures  —  its  intro- 
duction of  modern  inventions  (e.g.  railways  aud  the  telegrapli), 
the  protection  of  Christian  missionaries,  and  its  forcible  aboli- 
tion of  heathen  rites  like  the  "suttee"  (widow-burning)  had 
become  very  unpopular  among  the  ignorant  natives.  Further- 
more, the  activity  of  Russia  on  the  northern  frontier  led  to 
a  belief  that  Great  Britain  as  a  world  power  was  declining,  and 
that  Russia  was  destined  to  take  her  place.  jNLeanwhile  the 
East  India  Company's  control  depended  upon  the  efficiency  of 
its  army,  which  was  officered  by  Europeans,  but  was  made  up 
in  very  large  proportion  of  natives  of  India,  called  Sepoys. 
The  incompetency  of  the  company  is  shown  by  the  fact  that, 
although  it  was  known  that  the  Sepoys  had  a  superstition  that 
the  company's  rule  would  end  on  the  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  battle  of  Plassey,  no  proper  steps  were  taken  to  forestall 
revolt. 

In  the  spring  of  1857  broke  out  a  series  of  small  mutinies, 
caused  by  the  adoption  of  a  new  type  of  rifle,  in  which  greased 
cartridges  were  used  ;  for  it  was  whispered  that  the  new       594    The 

cartridges  were  an  ingenious   device  of   the  British  to      Sepoy  mu- 
o  »  tiny 

outrage  native  religious  beliefs  by  using  the  fat  of  the  (1867-1858) 
cow,  sacred  to  the  Hindu,  and  of  the  hog,  unclean  to  the  Mus- 
sulman. The  revolts  were  general  through  the  upper  Ganges 
basin,  the  three  centers  being  Delhi  (where  a  descendant  of 
the  Grand  \Mogid  was  set  up  as  ruler),  Cawnpur,  and  Luck- 
now.  Everywhere,  and  especially  at  Cawni)ur,  the  mutineers 
committed  unspeakable  atrocities  ui»()ii  the  British  men, 
women,  and  children  that  fell  into  their  hands.  Fortunately 
for  British  rulr,  the  Sikhs  of  the  Punjab,  the  various  tril)es  of 
the  lower  Ganges  valley,  aud  the  troops  in  tlu*  Hekkau,  all 
remained  loyal.  Fortunately,  too,  the  l^ritish  government 
had  just  dispatched  troops  for  service  in  China,  and,  when 
these  arrived  at  Cape  Colony,  the  governor  assumed  the 
responsibility  of  directing  them  to  India. 


506 


GREATER    ENGLAND 


The  Kashmere  Gate,  Delhi 


In  May,   1857,    General    Nicholson   with    only  7,000    men 

marched    from    the    Punjab    into   the   heart    of   the    revolted 

■D  district,  and,  after  a  siege  of  four  months,  stormed  Delhi, 

t)95.   US- 
suits  of  the    a  walled   city   defended  by   100,000  soldiers  trained  to 

mu  my  warfare  by  the  BritisJi.      Meanwhile  General   Havelock 

advanced  through  lower  Bengal  to  Cawnpur,  and  then  passed 
on  to  Lncknow,  which  was  still  held  by  a  small  British  garri- 
son after  a  siege  of  eighty-seven  days.  The  capture  of  these 
three  places  checked  the  conflagration,  and  within  the  next 
twelve  months  the  embers  of  revolt  were  entirely  stamped  out. 
As  a  result  of  these  events,  the  charter  of  the  East  India 
Company  was  revoked,  and  India  passed  directly  under  the 
crown,  a  Secretary  of  State  for  India  being  added  to  the  Brit- 
ish Cabinet.  The  actual  task  of  government  was  intrusted  to 
a  council  composed  of  men  experienced  in  Indian  affairs,  and 
to  a  governor  general  appointed  by  the  crown. 


l-OKKltiN    AND    COLONIAL    INl'KliKSTS    O820-l»:i8)       TjUT 

As  soon  as  the  Sej)oy  imitiny  was  sui)i)res,S('(l,  Great  lirit- 

ain  turned  her  attention  to  renewed  Chinese  troul)les  (§  r»srt). 

As  in  iS.Sy,  the  troulih'  arose  out  of  an  aiJiiartMit  insult  to    ^„^   ^         , 
'  '  '  596.  Second 

(ireat  l>ritain  by  Chinese  otticers,  who  forcibly  arrested  Chinese 

men  on  a  vessel  tiying  the  British  tiag  (1850).  The  men 
were  pirates,  and  the  flag  was  carried  without  legal  right ;  but 
nevertheless  the  British  bombarded  and  captured  Canton,  and 
dictated  terms  of  peace  (1858).  France  joined  in  the  war,  on 
the  ground  of  some  preexisting  claims  against  China;  and  by 
the  treaty  the  Yangtze  valley  was  thrown  opiMi  to  British 
and  French  missionaries  and  traders,  and  diplomatic  relations 
were  established  by  China  with  both  countries.  China,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  paid  the  expenses  of  the  war.  A  year  later 
the  treaty  had  to  be  enforced  by  the  invasion  of  China  and  the 
capture  of  Peking. 


Vktokia  Citoss. 

Decoration  for  military  ami  naval 
servic*'.  Ma<le  from  <'annoii 
i-ai)tiirc>l  in  the  Crimean  \^'■.^^■. 


In  this  period  the  fruits  of  the 
Napoleonic  wars  appeared  in 
Great  Britain's  foreign  re-  597 
lations,  esjjecially  tho.se 
with  Kussia.  Jealousy  and  sus- 
]»icion  of  this  i»ower  led  Brit- 
ish statesmen  in  ISL'T  into  a 
hollow  alliance  with  her  against 
'I'urkcy,  anil  in  1854  into  an 
ciiually  hollow  alliance  with 
I'rance  against  Kussia.  Greece 
was  worth  saving;  Ijut  Turkey 
—  ]  (reserved  at  such  a  cost  of 
blood  and  treasure  —  was  a  heavy 
and  an  unprofitable  burden.  Else- 
where, too,  Biritain  shoulden'd 
new  buiileiis  witliout  much  regard 
to    conse(piences.        The    oppres- 


Sum- 
mary 


508 


GREATER    ENGLAND 


siou  and  robbery  of  China  was  indefensible,  that  of  Afghan- 
istan botli  indefensible  and  profitless.  But  iu  the  great  de- 
pendencies of  the  empire  —  Canada,  Cape  Colony,  Australia 
—  the  period  was  one  of  growth ;  and  in  India  even  the  great 
mutinies  gave  an  opportunity  for  beneficial  changes  of  admin- 
istration. 


Suggestive 
topics 


Search 
topics 


TOPICS 

(I)  Show  how  Russian  ambitions  were  stimulated  during  the 
Napoleonic  period.  (2)  Explain  why  the  Holy  Alliance  was  so 
named.  (3)  What  reason  had  the  United  States  in  this  period 
to  dread  Russian  aggression  ?  (4)  What  events  in  this  period 
show  that  Great  Britain  profited  by  her  experience  with  the  thir- 
teen American  colonies?  (5)  Do  you  know  any  colonies  besides 
Australia  to  which  Great  Britain  has  ever  transported  criminals  ? 
(6)  Can  you  suggest  some  of  the  evils  of  a  system  of  transportation 
for  crime  ?  (7)  Was  the  penalty  inflicted  on  China  in  1842  pro- 
portionate to  the  offense  committed  by  her  ?  (8)  With  the  aid  of 
a  map,  show  the  importance  of  Afghanistan  to  India.  (9)  In  the 
same  way,  show  the  importance  of  the  Punjab.  (10)  Why  did  the 
possession  of  Natal  seem  especially  desirable  to  the  Boers  after 
their  "  Great  Trek  "  ? 

(II)  Russian  advances  toward  Constantinople  under  Peter  the 
Great  and  Catherine  the  Great.  (12)  Lord  Byron  in  the  Greek 
Revolution.  (13)  Character  of  the  Boer  civilization  in  South 
Africa.  (14)  The  work  of  Florence  Nightingale.  (15)  Charge  ot 
the  Light  Brigade  at  Balaklava.  (16)  The  Declaration  of  Paris, 
issued  after  the  treaty  of  Paris.  (17)  The  defense  of  Lucknow. 
(18)  Causes  of  the  Canadian  rebellion  of  1837.  (19)  Convict  life 
in  Australia.     (20)  The  capture  of  Peking  in  1860. 


Geography 


Secondary 
authorities 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  454,  474,  .527,  545  ;  Gardiner,  Studenfs  Atlas, 
maps  60,  61,  63,  66,  88  ;  Poole,  Historical  Atlas,  map  Ixxxiv.  ; 
Reich,  New  Students'  Atlas,  maps  36,  50-52. 

Bright,  History  of  England,  III.  1370-1376,  1395-1401,  1410- 
1416,  1461-1472;  IV.  6-14,  26-31,  53-76,  92-95,  141-153,  178-189, 
192-208,  228-335  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  History,  882-884,  912-916, 
934-939,  943-955,  966-969  ;  Ransome,  Advanced  History,  955-967, 
981-997  (and  see  index) ;  Green,  Short  History  (epilogue  ) ;  Powell 


Konr.ICN    AM)   COLONIAL    INTEUKSTS    (1820-1858)       509 

auil  'r..iit.  ntstunj  »j  Kiii/him!,  OOH-iHO.  1008-1018,  10-2:{-1040  (and 
see  iiulex^  ;  Brewer,  StudeiU's  Iluine,  clis.  xxxiv.  xxxv.  ;  McCarthy, 
History  «f  Our  Otrn  Tiiiien,  chs.  iii.  viii.  xi.  xvii.  xxii.  xxv.- 
xxviii.  XXX. -XXXVI.  ;  Oman,  Enijhind  iu  the  Xincteeuth  Cfutury. 
clis.  iv.  V.  ;  S.  Walpole,  History  of  Eiit/htnd  Sincf  JS1'>,  elis.  xv. 
404-4:J5,  xvi.-xxii.  xxiv.-xxviii. ;  Morley,  Life  of  Ghuhtone,  I.  ; 
Lyall,  Rise  of  British  Dominion  in  Jmlia,  xvii.  ;  llainley.  77«e 
War  in  the  Crimea ;  Sanders,  Life  of  Viscount  Palmcrston ; 
Fitohett,  The  Tale  of  the  Great  Mutiny;  Malleson,  The  Indian 
Mutiny;  Temple.  Lor<l  Z,a»nf  nee  ;  Forbes,  The  Afghan  War; 
Jenks,  The  Anstrnhisian  Colonies  ;  Jose.  The  Groxcth  of  Empire. 
See  New  England  History  Teachers'  Association.  Siillnhus.  -ICA, 
2(i5. 

Kendall,  Source-Book.  nos.  139-144  ;  Forbes,  Forty-one  Years  ii<    Sources 
India;  Russell,  Letters  from  the  Crimea. 

H.  Kmgsley.  The  Hillyars  and  the  Burtons,  —  Geoffrey  Hamhjn  ;    niuatrative 
Parker,  The  Seats  of  the  Miijhly  ;    H.ade,  It  Is  Never  Too  Late  to    *°""^^ 
Mend ;  Schreiner,  Peter  llalkett.  Trouper ;  Steele,  On  the  Face  of 
the  Waters. 


WALK  Kit's  KX<;.   iiisr.  —  31 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

KEFORMS  AND  EXPANSION  (1858-188G) 

Except  for  the   brief  "  stop-gap  "  ministry  of  tlie  Earl  of 
Derby  in  1858,  Lord  Falmerston  held  the  premiership  continu- 
598    Great    o^^^sly  from  the  Crimean  War  to  his  death  in  1865.     Setting 
Britain  and    i^g  face  resolutely  against  political  changes  at  home,  he 
States  contented  himself  with  directing  British  foreign  policy 

(1861-1865)  and  strengthening  her  army  and  navy,  while  Gladstone, 
his  brilliant  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  skillfully  managed 
the  resulting  financial  problems.  His  last  ministry  (1859- 
1865)  covered  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States. 
The  blockade  of  the  Confederate  ports  so  completely  cut  off 
the  supply  of  cotton  to  Great  Britain  that  the  mills  in  Lan- 
cashire were  run  but  a  few  hours  a  week.  Most  of  the  work- 
men, and  many  manufacturers,  were  unwilling  to  buy  relief  by 
helping  to  perpetuate  slavery,  but  the  aristocratic  and  govern- 
ing classes  would  have  liked  to  see  the  revolted  states  victorious. 
The  ministry  permitted  numerous  vessels  built  for  the  Con- 
federacy to  put  to  sea  from  British  ports,  one  of  which,  the 
Alabama,  in  two  years  destroyed  sixty-five  vessels,  worth 
$4,000,000,  without  ever  having  entered  a  Confederate  port.  The 
declaration  of  the  United  States  minister,  Cliarles  F.  Adams, 
"It  would  be  superfluous  in  me  to  point  out  to. your  Lordship 
that  this  is  war,"  finally  (1863)  induced  the  British  govern- 
ment to  stop  this  practice,  but  not  until  friendly  relations  had 
been  strained  almost  to  the  breaking  point.  In  1872  Great 
Britain  was  ordered  by  the  Geneva  Arbitration  Tribunal  to 
pay  to  the  United  States  over  iBo,000,000  as  damages  for  these 
violations  of  neutrality. 

510 


RKFOKMS   AM)    KXl'ANSK  )N    (1858-1886)  oil 

After  ralmerston's  ileath,  in  186"),  although  Earl  Russoll  and 
Lord  Derby  were  for  a  time  the  nominal  heads  of  the  Lilit-ral 
and  the  Conservative  parties  respectively,  Gladstone  and      ^^g    ^^^^ 
Disraeli,  their  lieutenants   in  tlie   House  of  Commons,        political 
were  the   real   party  leaders.     Gladstone  was  a  sincere 
patriot,   a    brilliant    financier,  an    eloquent    orator ;    Disraeli 
was  less   earnest,  more  showy,  more  seltish.     Each  was  con- 
fronted with    grave 
problems  at  home  and 
abroad:     Disraeli    met 
them  by  catering  to  the 
popular  demand ;  Glad- 
stone by  careful  study 
of    the    merits   of    the 
question.      Gladstone 
promoted  reforms  from 
conviction,  Disraeli   to 
"dish   the  Whigs,''  as 
he    expressed    it.       In 
their  foreign  policies  it 
is   doubtful  which   did 
the  more  harm  —  Glad- 
stone by  his  attempts 

to  be   more   than   just 

,.  Wii.i.iwi   i:.v  \UT  (JL.vnsTo.vr. 

to    his    opponents,    or 

Disraeli   by  his   unscrupulous   and    reckless  '•  jingoism." 

It  was   the   task   of  the   third   quarter  of   the   nineteenth 

century    to   destroy  the   political    abuses    still    left  after   the 

earlier     reform     movement    of    IH'VJ.      In    1S58    Derby     g^^      Tti- 

secured    the    removal    of   the  propertv   qualification  for        umphant 
.     ,.     ,.  II  11  •      .1  ..I     democracy" 

seats  m  Parliament;  and  also  such  changt's  in  tlie  oath 

of  supremacy  as  allowed  Jews  to  l)ecome  eligible  to  Parlia- 
ment. In  1866,  Russell  introduced  a  moderate  suffrage  reform 
measure    which    pleased   nobody,   and   he    was   compelled   to 


512  GREATER   ENGLAND 

resign ;  but  the  very  next  year  Disraeli  passed  the  sweeping 
Reform  Bill  of  1867.  This  bill  extended  the  borough  franchise 
to  all  owners  of  houses  and  to  all  men  who  lived  in  hired 
lodgings  worth  £10  a  year;  and  the  county  franchise  to  all 
owners  of  property  worth  £5  a  year  and  to  all  tenants  paying 
£12  rent ;  it  also  applied  the  principles  of  Russell's  Bill  of 
1832  to  the  forty-six  remaining  rotten  boroughs.  Thus  well-to- 
do  workmen  and  small  farmers  received  the  right  to  vote  —  a 
long  stride  toward  democracy. 

In  1870,  the  establishment  of  a  competitive  civil  service 
system  reduced  to  a  minimum  the  possibility  of  bribery  by 
"  patronage,"  and  in  1871  voting  by  ballot  was  introduced  so 
that  tenants  were  freed  from  coercion  by  their  landlords.  In 
1884  Gladstone's  extension  of  household  suffrage  to  the 
counties  (thus  enfranchising  the  agricultural  laborers)  made 
the  suffrage  practically  universal ;  and  his  Redistribution  of 
Seats  Bill,  passed  the  next  year,  determined  the  composition  of 
Parliament  as  it   exists  to-day. 

Hopeless  of  procuring  justice  under  English  rule,  the  Irish 
in  1859  organized  the  so-called  Fenian  movement,  which 
601.  Fen-  found  much  support  from  Irishmen  who  had  emigrated 
dlsesub^-^*^  to  America.  At  the  close  of  the  American  Civil  War, 
liskment  many  of  these  returned  to  Ireland,  merely  to  use  their 
military  experience  for  Irish  freedom.  An  uprising  which 
took  place  in  1867  was  easily  suppressed,  and  the  Fenians 
in  desperation  began  a  course  of  terrorism.  In  December 
an  attempt  was  made  to  rescue  a  Fenian  from  Clerkenwell 
Prison,  and  twelve  persons  were  killed.  This  event  con- 
vinced the  nation  that  some  concessions  must  be  made  to  the 
Irish,  and  the  Liberals  came  into  power  on  the  "  platform " 
of  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  Within  a  year 
Gladstone  carried  through  Parliament  a  bill  by  which  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  Ireland  was  wholly  separated 
from  the    state,  becoming   a   voluntary  organization   like  the 


RKF()1{.MS    AND    KXI'ANSION    (18r)8-l880) 


il8 


Kpiscopal  Cliuicli  of  tlie  United  States.  It  kept  all  its  cathe- 
drals and  chuiThes,  and  its  clergy  were  indeinnitied  for  their 
personal  losses  due  to  the  change ;  but  the  endowments  which 
the  church  had  acquired  since  the  Restoration  were  converted 
to  charitable  and  educational  uses  in  Ireland. 

Gladstone  now  tgok  up  the  land  question,  which  was  con- 
tinually becoming    more  acute.     Owing   to  England's  former 
policy  of   repressing   manufactures    in    Ireland,  farming 
was  its  chief  industry.     The    land  was   leased  without      first  Irish 
imjjrovements  —  that  is,  the  buildings,  fencing,  etc.,  were  ^^      "^ 

provided  by  the  tenant ;  yet  rents  were  high,  and  tenant  hold- 


A.N   Ikish   I'kasants  Homk. 

ings  were  small,  liecause  of  the  density  of  population.  Thus 
the  margin  of  ])r()fit  was  small,  especially  as  the  climate  and 
the  lack  of  natural  drainage  made  the  crops  uncertain.  In 
bad  seasons,  the  stewards,  particiilarly  those  of  absentee  land- 
lords, evicted  those  who  failed  to  pay  their  rents  —  generally 
without  any  compensation  ft>r  permanent  imitrovemcnts  made 
during  their  tenancy  —  and  re-leased  to  more  desirable  tenants. 
The  Land  Act  of  1870  decreed  that  tenants  who  gave  up  their 


514  GREATER   ENGLAND 

holdings  should  be  compensated  for  improvements,  and  pro- 
vided for  government  loans  to  responsible  tenants,  by  which 
they  might  purchase  on  mortgage  the  farms  they  occupied. 

Up  to  the  year  1870,  there  were  no  free  elementary  schools 
supported  wholly  by  the  state   in   England.     One  reason  for 

603  Public  tl^^s  w^^  ^^^^  ^^^®  Anglicans  and  the  dissenters  could  not 
education      agree  regarding  the  place  of  religion  in  formal  education. 

In  1870  Gladstone  carried  through  Parliament  an  Education 
Act  framed  by  Mr.  Forster.  This  act  authorized  the  election 
of  School  Boards  with  authority  (1)  to  levy  a  definite  local 
tax  for  the  support  of  education,  (2)  to  spend  this  money  in 
improving  existing  schools,  (3)  to  build  and  maintain  new 
schools,  (4)  to  fix  a  fee  for  tuition,  (5)  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  pupils.  It  was  stipulated  that  in  "Board  Schools" 
no  religious  catechism,  or  "definitely  dogmatic  formularies," 
should  be  taught ;  that  in  schools  which  accepted  state  aid 
all  religious  instruction  should  be  given  before  or  after  the 
regular  session,  and  that  attendance  upon  this  instruction 
should  be  voluntary.  The  next  year  (1871),  by  the  abolition  of 
religious  tests,  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  were 
for  the  first  time  opened  to  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestant 
dissenters. 

Before  these  reforms  could  be  thoroughly  tested,  Gladstone 
was  displaced  by  Disraeli  (1874),  Avho  soon  found  a  field  for 

604  The  his  "  jingo  "  tendencies  in  the  Eastern  question.  In  1875 
Russian-  the  Greek  Christians  in  Bulgaria  revolted  against  Turkish 
^^j.  misgovernment,  a  sympathetic  revolt  was  kindled  in 
(1877-1878)   Servia  and  Montenegro,  and  the  merciless  deeds  of  the 

Turks  in  suppressing  these  movements  horrified  all  Europe. 
Kussia  at  once  made  war  on  Turkey ;  but  when  her  armies  had 
forced  the  passes  of  the  Balkans  and  were  within  only  a  hun- 
dred miles  of  Constantinople  (December,  1877),  Disraeli  (now 
Lord  Beaconsfield)  dispatched  a  British  fleet  to  the  Bosphorus. 
Russia  hastened  to  negotiate  the  peace  of  San  Stephano  with 


UEFOKMS    AM)    KXl'ANSloN    (lbo8-188fi) 


.1. 


Turkey,  but  as  its  terms  seemed  too  favorable  to  tlie  vntor, 
Great  Britain  protested.  At  a  Congress  held  at  Herlin  (1S7H), 
those  territories  that  had  suffered  most  from  Turkish  misgov- 
ernment  (Roumania,  Ser- 


via,  Bulgaria)  were  cre- 
ated into  independent  or 
semi-independent  states, 
to  serve  as  a  barrier  be- 
tween Russia  and  Con- 
stantinople. By  a  separate 
treaty  (Jreat  l>ritain  guar- 
anteed the  integrity  of 
Turkey's  Asiatic  domains, 
receiving  in  return  the 
island  of  Cyprus  in  the 
eastern  Mediterranean. 
To  the  enormous  crowd 
which  welcomed  the  en- 
voys back  to  London,  Bea- 
consfield  said.  '•  I  bring 
vou  peace  with  honor.'' 

During  the  Turkish-Russian  War,  the  Russians  for  the  second 
time  dispatched  an  agent  to  win  over  the  ameer  of  Afghanistan. 
To   increase   the   ])restige   of   Great    Britain    in    India,       ^^^^^^^l 
Disraeli  induced  Parliament  to  bestow  upon  the  queen       East    Af- 
the  title  of  Empress  of  India  (1877),  and  the  next  year      gbanistan 
British  armies  invaded  Afghanistan  and  placed  on  the  throne 
a  ruler  favorable  to  (heat  Britain.      The  experience  of  1841- 
1842  was  then  repeated.     Within  a  year  (1878)  a  revolt  took 
place,  the  new  ameer  was  dej.osed.  English  residents  were  mur- 
dered, and  an  army  was  nearly  destroy. -d.       An  avenging  army 
under  Lord  Roberts  inHicted  several  defeats  upon  the  Afghans, 
and  then  the  country  was  left  to  itself  under  a  new  ameer, 
who  professed  himself  friendly  to  the  British. 


TlRKEV    AXn   THE   CoUXTKIKS    KHKED 
FROM    TlKKlSH    RlLK.    ISl.'-lSai. 


UKFOK.MS    AM)    KXI'ANSIKN    (18J8-l««iJ)  ,")17 

During  tlu^  Malulist  ivvult  in  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (§  008), 
the  Russians  oeeuiiied  Merv,  a  most  important  base  for  opera- 
tions against  Afghanistan,  and  hiid  claim  to  various  territories 
also  claimed  by  Afghanistan.  Great  Britain  protested,  and 
nuitters  became  strained  almost  to  the  point  of  war;  but  an 
agreement  was  finally  reached  for  the  appointment  of  a  joint 
commission  to  mark  out  the  frontiers  of  Afghanistan.  This 
commission  completed  its  work  in  1895,  aud  the  boundary  thus 
defined  was  guaranteed  by  both  countries. 

The   first   experiment   in   maintaining  a  free  state  in  the 
Transvaal    proved  an  absolute   failure.     The   population    was 
scattered  and  roving.     "  The  government  was  powerless      606    War 
to  control  either  its  white  citizens  or  its  native  subjects;  ^^  the 

Xr3.IlSV£L&l 

it  was  incapable  of  enforcing  its  laws,  of  collecting  its  (1881) 

taxes,  .  .  .  the    powerful    Zulu    king,    Cetawayo,  [was]       R''i''<''t  «f 
anxious  to  seize  the  first  opportunity  of  attacking  [the]         (jimimis. 
country.''     At  the  request  of  many  of  its  citizens.  Great    ^ioner,  isra 
liritain  reannexed  the  country  in  Ajjril,  1877,  and  all  but  one 
of  the  memlicrs  of  the  late  government  took  otiice  under  the 
new  rulers.    Paul  Kruger  and  certain  associates,  however,  soon 
became  disaffected,  and  in  December,   18S0,   they  proclaimed 
anew  the  inde[)endence  of  the  Transvaal. 

In  the  short  war  which  followed,  the  most  important  event 
was  the  battle  of  Majuba  Hill  (March,  18S1),  where  a  British 
force  was  surprised  and  disastrously  defeated  by  a  bodv    „ 

'■  -  J  .      PrtHunhle  to 

of  Boers.  Gladstone,  with  his  usual  eagerness  to  riglit  the  Pretoria 
alleged  wrongs,  hastened  to  make  peace  with  the  n-lx-ls  '"'"''■"''"" 
l)y  the  Pretoria  Convention,  signed  August  3,  1S81.  I'.y  this 
convention  the  Boers  were  granted  "complete  self-govern- 
ment, subje(;t  to  the  suzerainty  of  Ilcr  Majesty."  In  the 
T.ondon  Convention,  signed  February  'J7,  1884,  (Jreat  Britain 
allowed  the  word  ''suzerainty"  to  be  dropped,  and  contented 
herself  with  an  assertion  of  her  right  of  veto  over  treaties  with 
my  state  or  nation  otln-r  than  the  Orange  Free  State. 


518 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


MEDITERRA 


The  interest  of  Great  Britain  in  northern  Africa  dates  from 

1869,  when  a  stock  company  organized  by  a  Frenchman  named 

„--    ^  Ferdinand   de   Lessens   completed  the  Suez   Canal ;    for 

607.  The  ^  ^  ' 

occupation     good  government  in  Egypt  thus  became  a  matter  of  inter- 

-^^yP  national  importance.     This  interest  was  greatly  increased 

in   1875,    when    Beaconslield    purchased    from    the    bankrupt 
khedive  of  Egypt  his  entire  holding  of  17(3,602  shares,  more 

than  a  third  of  the  stock  of 
the  company.  Thenceforth 
France  and  Great  Britain 
practically  controlled  the  pol- 
icy of  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment,' and  especially  its 
finances,  which  had  become 
disordered  through  the  ex- 
travagance of  the  khedive's 
court,  and  through  a  reckless 
system  of  internal  improve- 
ment. 

In  1882  the  Egyptian  Min- 
ister of  War,  Arabi  Pasha, 
headed  a  revolt  to  free  the 
government  from  foreign  in- 
terference. France  refused 
to  take  decisive  measures ; 
but  a  British  fleet  bombarded 


The  Egyptian  Sudan. 


Alexandria  (July,  1882),  a  British  army  routed  the  rebel 
forces  at  Tel-el-Kebir  (August,  1882),  and  order  was  restored. 
France,  in  chagrin  at  her  rival's  added  prestige,  protested 
against  the  continuance  of  a  British  army  in  Egypt,  but  Great 
Britain  replied  that  "  whenever  security  and  tranquillity  should 
be  permanently  restored,"  the  British  troops  should  be  with- 
drawn.    They  are  still  in  Egypt. 

Arabi's  revolt  furnished  an  opportunity  to  the  tribes  in  the 


REFDRMS    AM)    KXTANSION    (185S-1S80)  ol9 

basin  of  the  upper  Nile  (the  Egyptian  Sudan),  wiiere  the  Kg}'i>- 

tian  government  was   struggling  to  open  up  the  country   to 

trade,  and  to  destroy  the  traffic  in  slaves.     In   1881,  a      „„„    , 

.  ...  608     Lobs 

native  chieftain  posing  as  a  Mahdi  (an  inspired  messen-  of  the 

ger  from  God)  staited  a  crusade  against  Egyptian  rule  "  *° 

in  the  Sudan.     Forty  thousand  fanatics  rallied  to  his  support, 

and  all  the  Sudan  except  a  few  strongholds  fell  into  his  hands. 

Glad.stone  persuaded  Egypt  to  abandon  the  region,  and  General 

Charles  George  Gordon  was  sent  up  the  Nile  to  withdraw  her 

forces. 

<Jordon,  however,  was  soon  penned  up  in  Khartum,  and 
owing  to  dissensions  in  the  British  Cabinet  it  was  five  months 
before  a  relief  expedition  was  organized.  In  five  months  more 
the  expedition  fought  its  way  sixteen  hundred  miles  up  the 
Nile,  only  to  find  that  two  days  before  its  arrival  Khartum 
had  been  captured,  its  garrison  massacred,  and  General  Gordon 
himself  killed  (January  20,  1885).  The  region  south  of  the 
Wady  Haifa  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Mahdists,  but  the 
Egyptian  government  announced  that  its  withdrawal  was  only 
temporary. 

In    1879   a   league   was    formed   to   aid    in   securing    home 
rule  fur  Ireland — that  is,  the  creation  of   a  separate  Parlia- 
ment in  Dublin,  with  authority  over  local  matters.      The        609    De- 
distress  of  Irish  farmers  was  daily  increasing  because  of    ho^*°Euj'^ 
a  rapiil  fall  in  prices,  due  partly  to  the  flood  of  American      in  Ireland 
food  stuffs.     A  new  weapon,  "  boycotting,"  was  devised,  whicli 
consisted  in  refusing  to  do  business,  or  have  any  social  rela- 
tions, with  any  obnoxious  landlord  or  agent.     Evictions  were 
many,  and   led  to  criminal   and  inhuman  retaliations.     Lord 
Frederick  Cavendish,  a  newly  appointed  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland,  and    Mr.  Hurke,  the  permanent  Under-Secretary  for 
Ireland,  were  Ixjth  murdered  in   Diililin  in   IHSL':  as  a  result 
of  these  outrages,  a  galling  Crimes   Act  was   passed   by  the 
British  Parliament. 


520  GREATER   ENGLAND 

Mr.  Michael  Davitt  induced  the  farmers  to  refuse  to  pay 
rents  until  they  should  be  reduced  in  proportion  to  the  fall 
in  prices.  In  Parliament  Charles  Stuart  Parnell  devised  a 
scheme  of  "  obstruction  "  intended  to  prevent  any  and  all  leg- 
islation until  Ireland's  wrongs  should  be  righted.  By  voting 
always  with  the  Opposition,  the  Home  Rulers  were  able  to 
force  Gladstone  from  power  in  1885,  and  to  do  the  same  to  his 
successor,  the  Conservative  Salisbury,  within  another  seven 
months.  With  Mr.  Gladstone's  return  to  power  as  a  Home 
Ruler  (in  February,  1886),  begins  another  period  in  the  history 
of  Ireland. 

During  this  period  the  British  government,  not  yet  in  full 
touch  with   the  people,  nearly  blundered  into  war  with  the 
610    Sum-     United  States.     It  quite  blundered  into  another  Afghan 
^^^7  war,  which  proved  worse  than  useless.     At  the  Congress 

of  Berlin  it  again  took  up  the  costly  and  useless  burden  of 
protecting  "  the  unspeakable  Turk."  At  Berlin,  said  Lord 
Salisbury  in  1896,  England  "backed  the  wrong  horse.''  In 
Egypt  she  interfered  with  better  excuse,  and  with  great  advan- 
tage to  both  countries.  In  South  Africa,  on  the  contrary,  she 
made  a  dual  blunder  —  in  government  and  in  diplomacy;  for 
she  failed  to  adapt  her  government  to  existing  conditions,  and 
failed  to  enforce  her  treaty  rights. 

At  home,  many  reforms  were  wrought.  The  dreams  of  the 
chartists  were  in  part  realized  by  the  admission  of  the  masses 
to  representation  —  which  perhaps  explains  the  repeated  alter- 
nation of  power  between  the  two  parties,  for  the  political  opin- 
ions of  the  masses  are  proverbially  unstable.  Ireland,  too, 
won  the  redress  of  her  religious  grievance,  and  some  improve- 
ments in  the  land  question.  But  new  causes  provoked  fresh 
unrest,  so  that  "  Parnellism  and  Crime  "  (as  its  enemies  phrased 
it)  destroyed  the  value  of  Gladstone's  remedial  legislation,  and 
drove  him  into  the  Home  Rule  camp. 


REFORMS   AND    KXl'ANSK  )X    (1858-1880)  oil 

TOPICS 

(1)  Compare  the  length  of  tenure  of  parties  during  this  period  Sugrgrestive 
with  that  of  parties  in  the  previoius  century.  (2)  Show  how  each  ^°P''=8 
of  the  reforms  in  §  000  tended  to  make  the  government  more  demo- 
cratic. (3)  Comi)are  these  reforms  with  the  demands  made  by 
the  Chartists  (§  '•ili'^).  (4)  Wliat  classes  besides  the  cotton  workers 
sutTereil  as  a  result  of  tiie  American  Civil  "War?  (•'>)  Why  was  it 
diftioult  to  secure  tlie  disestablishment  of  the  Irisli  Cliurch  ? 
(0)  Was  it  just  to  confiscate  the  endowments  of  the  Irish  Church  ? 
(7)  Compare  the  school  boards  under  the  Forster  Act  of  1870  with 
those  in  your  own  state.  (8)  Cite  the  various  instances  that  we 
have  found  where  Great  Britain  balked  Russia's  ambitious  schemes, 
(tt)  What  causes  stimulated  the  exportation  of  food  stuffs  from 
America  during  this  period  ? 

(10)  Some  anecdotes  of  Disraeli  in  the    House   of  Commons.    Search 

(11)  Gladstone's    attitude    towards    tlie    American    Civil    War.    ^^opi^s 

(12)  The  cruise  of  the  AJahmnn.  (13)  The  defense  of  Plevna  by 
the  Turks  in  1877.  (14)  The  reign  of  Ismail,  khedive  of  Egypt, 
18<S3-1879.     (15)  The  character  and  career  of  "  Chinese  Gordon." 

(l«j)  Cartoons  on  Disraeli   in    Punch.     (17)  Construction  of   the  » 

Suez  Canal.  (18)  Explorations  of  the  Nile.  (H>)  Pamell  as  a 
leader  and  statesman. 

REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pp.  474,  510,  518,  527  ;    Gardiner,  School  Atlas,  maps   Geography 
05,  06  ;   Poole,  Ilintoricdl  Athts,  map  xc.  ;    Reich,  New  Students'' 
Atlas,  maps  48-;jO. 

Hright,  History  of  Eiujland,  IV.  .336-577  ;  Gardiner,  Student's  Secondary 
Uistory,  055-<.t72  ;  liansoiue,  Advanced  History,  !»1)7-1031  ;  Powell  a"*'»°"*»e8 
and  Tout,  History  of  Euijland,  ni'.)-!t44,  1018-1011»,  1040-1043; 
J.  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  1SS7-1SS0,  chs.  xxxvii.- 
Ixvi.,  —  lSSt^lsU7,  ch.s.  i.-x.,  —  Outlines  of  Irish  History,  ix.-xi.  ; 
Claytien,  Enfjland  under  Braronsficld,  lS7.3-lSiiO;  J.  II.  .McCarthy, 
Kufjland  undir  (Gladstone,  1SS0-1SS4;  Morley,  Life  of  (tladstone, 
II.  III.;  Russell,  Gladstone;  Rryce,  William  Ewart  Gladstone; 
Meynt'U.  Binjamin  Disraeli;  Sichel,  Disraeli;  Cox,  History  of  the 
Rpfirm  Bills  iif  1S6H-1SG7;  Clayden,  Emjland  under  Lord  Beacons- 
field  ;  Lawless,  Ireland,  ch.  Iviii.  ;  .Montgomery,  History  of  L^ind 
Tenure  in  Ireland,  pt.  Hi.  ;  Morris,  Inland.  1494-IS6S,  .■Ul-:{54  ; 
Keltic,  The  Partition  of  Africa  ;  Sauflerson,  Africa  in  thr  .Vine- 
ti'onth  Cintury ;  Butler,  Charles  (reorye  (iordun  ;  Forbes,  The 
Afyhan    War;    Chirol,    The   Middle    Eastern    Question;    Taylor, 


522 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


The  Factory  System  and  the  Factory  Acts,  chs.  iv.-vi.  ;  Smith, 
Life  and  Speeches  of  John  Bright.  See  New  England  History 
Teachers'  Association,   Syllabus,  264-265. 

Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Docnments,  nos.  267-276  ;  Ken- 
dall, Source-Book,  nos.  132,  145-147. 

Forbes,  Czar  and  Sultan  ;  Fothergill,  Probation  ;  Kipling,  Kim. 

List  of  Prime  Ministers  since  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832 


Ministers 

Earl  Grey  .... 
Viscount  Melbourne 
Sir  Robert  Peel  .  . 
Viscount  Melbourne 
Sir  Robert  Peel  .  . 
Lord  John  Russell  . 
Earl  of  Derby  .  .  . 
Earl  of  Aberdeen 
Viscount  Palmerston 
Earl  of  Derby  .  .  . 
Viscount  Palmerston 
Earl  Russell     .    .     . 


Date  of 

Appointment 

Nov., 

1830 

July, 

1834 

Dec, 

1834 

April, 

1835 

August 

1841 

July, 

1846 

Feb., 

1852 

Dec, 

1852 

Feb., 

1855 

Feb., 

1858 

June, 

1859 

Oct., 

1865 

Ministers 
Earl  of  Derby  .  .  . 
Benjamin  Disraeli  . 
W.  E.  Gladstone  .  . 
Benjamin  Disraeli  . 
W.  E.  Gladstone  .  . 
Marquis  of  Salisbury 
W.  E.  Gladstone  .  . 
Marquis  of  Salisbury 
W.  E.  Gladstone  .  . 
Earl  of  Rosebery 
Marquis  of  Salisbury 
Arthur  J.  Balfour     . 


Date  of 
Appointment 

July,        1866 


Feb., 
Dec, 
Feb., 
April, 
June, 
Feb., 


1868 
1868 
1874 
1880 
1885 
1886 


August,  1886 
August,  1892 
March,  1894 
June,  1895 
July,       1902 


('iiAiTi:!;  XXX \i I. 


TlIK    rMIKl)    KlN(il)().M    SINCK    lS8r. 

Mi;,  (tlakstonk's  convtM-sion  to  Hoiiu'  Ifule  in  ISSG  caused 

a  division  of  the  Liberal  party  into  two  wings  :  one  retained 

the  name  "  Liberal"     611    Glad- 

,  ,11        stone's  first 

and     accepted     the    Home  Rule 

policy  of  Home  Biii'1886) 
Kule ;  the  other,  led  by 
Josei)h  Chamberlain, 
clung  to  the  legislative 
union  of  Ireland  and 
Great  Uritain,  and  was 
therefore  known  as  the 
Liberal- L'nit)nist  party. 

The  problem  before 
Gladstone  was  compli- 
cated, and  his  Home  Rule 
Bill  of  18S(),  framed  under 
most  difficult  conditions, 
satisfied  nobody.  Its 
linancial  and  political 
clauses  ])rovoked  such 
Km,.,.,;,-  ri,  ,,..  Mm;.,;  i.  ,.i   ,-mim:,  kv.      severe  criticism  that   the 

bill  was  rt'jt'ctcd  with  the  aid  of  ninety-three  Lil)eral  Unionist 
votes,  and  I^u-d  Salisl)ury  returned  to  jjowt-r  (August,  1H8(5). 
This  same  year  a  bill  was  passed,  granting  to  the  crofters,  or 
small  tenants,  in  six  Highland  countie.s  of  Scotland  similar 
rights  of  fixed   tenure,    fair   rents,  and   compensation    for  im- 

0-J.i 


524  GREATER   ENGLAND 

provements  that  had  been  granted  to  Ireland  in  1870.  In  the 
latter  country  the  Conservatives  tried  still  more  palliative 
measures  in  the  Ashbourne  Act,  which  granted  further  gov- 
ernment aid  for  the  purchase  of  farms,  the  drainage  of  fens, 
and  the  extension  of  roads  and  railroads  ;  but  they  were  at  the 
same  time  compelled  by  continued  local  outrages  and  boycott- 
ing to  pass  thoroughgoing  Crimes  Acts. 

The  most  notable  measure  of  Salisbury's  second  administra- 
tion was  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888,  which  completed 

„  ,.       the  transformation  of  England  into  a  democracy.     Up  to 

612.  Sails-  .  .  . 
bury  s  re-       this  time  the  administration  of  counties  had  been  in  the 

forms  m  hands  of  lord-lieutenants,  sheriffs,  justices  of  the  peace, 
ernment  and  other  appointive  officers ;  this  act  provided  for  each 
of  the  sixty  administrative  counties  a  "  county  council  "  of 
aldermen  and  councilors  elected  by  the  people.  These  councils 
have  complete  control  over  local  government,  including  local 
rating  and  assessment,  bridges,  prisons,  elections,  care  of  roads, 
etc.  London  and  its  more  important  suburbs  were  created 
into  a  special  county  of  this  type,  and  the  government  of  the 
metropolis  —  which,  as  the  aggregate  of  many  town  and  parish 
governments,  had  long  been  very  complex  —  was  much  simpli- 
fied. In  1889,  practically  the  same  system  was  applied  in 
Scotland,  and  in  1898  it  was  extended  to  Ireland. 

At  the  election  of  1892  the  Liberal  party  won  support  by 
pledging  itself  to  the  so-called  Newcastle  programme  of  re- 

^  „        forms.     These  included,  besides  Home  Rule  for  Ireland, 

613.  Defeat  ' 

of  Home         (1)  the  disestablishment  of  the  church  in  Wales  ;  (2)  meas- 

Rule  (1893)  ^^^.^^  defending  the  interests  of  the  laboring  classes; 
(3)  the  abolition  of  plural  voting ;  and  (4)  universal  manhood 
suffrage.  On  this  platform  Gladstone  returned  to  power  with 
a  majority  of  forty  votes.  A  new  Home  Rule  Bill  was  carried 
through  the  House  of  Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  a  vote 
of  419  to  41  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  the  midst  of  the 
fight,  Parnell  became  involved  in  a  ])ublic  scandal  and  criminal 


THE    IMIKI)    KINGDOM    SINCE    1885  .VJ") 

prosecution.  Gladstone  and  about  fort}-  of  liis  Irisli  allies  de- 
manded that  he  should  resign  the  leadt-rship  uf  the  Irish  Home 
Kulers;  the  others  refused  to  abandon  their  old  comrade  in 
arms.  Although  rarnell  died  very  soon,  the  quarrel  continued 
for  some  years,  and  the  cause  of  Home  Kule  was  thus  made 
hopeless  through  the  action  of  its  friends. 

In  the  famous  liering  Sea  controversy  of  1802-1890,  the 
United  States  claimed  jurisdiction  over  a  partly  inclosed  sea 
fifteen  hundred  miles  long  by  seven  hundred  miles  wide,       614.  The 

because  it  wished  to  i)rotect  from  extermination  the  valu-    „      Bering 
'  Sea  contro- 

able  herds  of  seals  whii-h  frec^uent  those  waters,  but  breed  versy 

and  feed  wholly  on  the  shores  of  Alaska  and  of  the  Pribilof 
Islands.  The  claim  was  technically  invalid,  fur  international 
law  gives  a  state  authority  over  the  open  sea  only  for  a  dis- 
tance of  three  miles  from  the  coast.  Consequently,  when  the 
United  States  arrested  and  i)unished  British  subjects  engaged 
in  sealing  outside  that  limit,  great  friction  resulted.  The 
arbitrators  to  whom  the  matter  was  referred  (189.3)  denied  the 
right  of  the  United  States  to  control  these  waters;  but  on  their 
recommendation  Great  llritain  agreed  to  restrict  the  o])era- 
tions  of  her  subjects  in  Bering  Sea  for  the  benefit  of  the  sealing 
industry  as  a  whole. 

In  1895  more  friction  resulted  over  Great  Britain's  quarrel 
with  \'enezuela  in  regard  to  the  boundary  of  British  Guiana. 
The  issue  involved  the  possession  of  an  important  river       615    The 

vallev,  and  the  control  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco;  and        enezuela 
'  '  contro- 

the  quarrel  —  a  quarter  of  a  century  old  —  was  intensified   versy^  I895i 
by  the  recent  discoveries  of  gold  in  the  disputed  territiuy,  and 
by  the  repeated  extension  of  tiie  British  claim.     (Jreat  P>ritain 
refused  to  sidnnit  the  matter  to  arbitration,  and   prep;ired  to 
seize  the  disputed  territory;    but   when    Tresident  Cleveland 
of  the  United  States  advi.sed  Congress  to  determine  the        Pn-xident 
true  boundarv  and  to  "resist  the  apitronriation  bv  (Jreat        '•'•'"'«  » 
Britain  of  any  lands"'  which  Indonged  to  \'enezuela  *' by  iisua 

w.vi.kku'h   kn<..  IIIxT.  — '.VI 


526  GREATER  ENGLAND 

every  means  in  its  power,  as  a  willful  aggression  upon  its  rights 
and  interests,"  she  reconsidered  her  decision.  The  arbitrators 
gave  to  Great  Britain  most  of  the  gold  fields,  but  left  Venezuela 
in  control  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco. 

The  irritation  over  these  incidents  was  short-lived ;  and  the 
friendly  attitude  of  Great  Britain  toward  the  United  States 
during  her  war  with  Spain  (1898)  and  during  the  subsequent 
complications  in  the  far  East,  brought  the  two  English-speak- 
ing natio"ns  more  closely  into  sympathy  than  at  any  previous 
period  of  their  history. 

In  1896,  France  commissioned  Major  Marchand  with  a  few 
followers  to  penetrate  into  the  upper  Nile  valley  by  way  of 

the  Kongo  State,  and  take  possession  of  the  Sudan,  the 

616.  France  &  >  i 

and  the  assumption  being  that   its   abandonment  by  Egypt  left 

Sudan  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  colonization.     At  the  same  time  General  Kitch- 

ener was  advancing  up  the  Xile  with  a  large  force  to  re- 
conquer the  Sudan  for  the  Eg^q^tian  government.  Eor  two 
years  he  forced  his  way  along  the  Nile  and  its  bordering  desert, 
building  a  railroad  in  his  rear  as  he  went,  to  maintain  his  con- 
nection with  Cairo.  At  Omdurman  (opposite  Khartum)  the 
Khalifa,  who  had  succeeded  the  ]\Iahdi,  made  a  desperate 
stand;  but  his  forces  were  utterly  routed. 

Kitchener  entered  Khartum  at  the  very  time  when  General 
Marchand  arrived  at  Fashoda,  four  hundred  miles  farther 
south  on  the  Nile.  The  incident  led  to  an  agreement  between 
France  and  Great  Britain,  by  which  the  unoccui)ied  region 
west  of  the  watershed  of  the  Nile  was  conceded  to  lie  in  the 
French  sphere  of  influence,  and  France  gave  up  all  claims  on 
the  Nile  valley  (1899).  In  the  same  year,  the  Khalifa  was 
killed  and  the  entire  Egyptian  Sudan  was  pacified. 

After  the  discovery  of  the  Witwatersrand  gold  fields  (1885) 

617.  Trou-  the  population  of  the  Transvaal  rapidly  increased  until 
Transvaal  ^'^^  aliens  outnumbered  the  original  settlers  six  to  one. 
(1885-1895)   The    Boers   virtually    refused    citizenship    to   the    new- 


THK  rNrrr.i)  kincdom  since  1885 


CAPE  TOWN 

f.  0/  tfooj  II^p, 


'••tSr-'' 

CRUAR 

r.. 

/I  .V 

/)      / 

.1 

V 

0  C  £  .1 

A 

•CUIO 

>L(> 

f.1 

0      100 

500     3 

Thk  15(ikr  Rkpublics  (l.s'.n.t). 


comers,  and  bunloned  their  iiulustries  witli  heavy  taxes  ami 
with  state  monopolies  of  mining  supplies.  Alter  vainly  de- 
manding new  naturalization  laws  in  order  to  gain  reforms 
by  the  ballot,  the  aliens  (called  Uitlanders)  in  1895  determined 
to  obtain  relief  by 
force.  They  secreted 
a  supply  of  arms  in 
the  mines  at  Johan- 
nesburg, the  center 
of  the  mining  dis- 
trict, and  enlisted  the 
aid  of  Cecil  Rhodes, 
premier  of  Cape  Col- 
ony and  president 
of  the  South  Africa 
Company, who  agreed 
to  send  to  them  fifteen  hundred  of  the  company's  mounted 
I)oliee  under  Captain  Jameson.  It  had  long  been  ]\[r.  Khodes's 
ambition  to  unite  all  South  Africa  into  a  single  federated 
state,  and  he  hojjed  that  the  revolt  would  bring  the  Transvaal 
again  under  British  control.  Jameson,  in  defiance  of  orders, 
invaded  the  Transvaal  too  early;  his  entire  force  was  captured; 
Khodes's  complicity  was  betrayed;  the  British  government 
disavowed  the  ai'tion  of  its  subjeets ;  and  the  Uitlanders  were 
in  worse  ease  than  before. 

In  March,  ISKO,  more  than  twenty  thousand  I'll  landers 
petitioned  the  I'.ritish  government  to  secure  for  tlifm  a  re- 
dress of  grievances,  and  the-  Colonial  Secretary,  Josepli       618    Out- 

Chamberlain,  entered  into  correspondence  with  President         .^^  »  °^ 
'  '  the  Boer 

Kruger  of  the  Transvaal.     During  the  prolonged  and  fruit-  war 

less  negotiations  that  followed,  both  governments  ma<le  active 
preparation  for  war,  the  l^oers  believing  that  (Jreat  Britain 
was  determined  to  seize  the  Transvaal,  and  the  British  alh-g- 
ing  that  the   lioers  were  conspiring  to   stir  up  revolt  among 


528  GREATER    ENGLAND 

the  Dutch  in  Cape  Colony.  October  9, 1899,  President  Kruger 
issued  an  ultimatum  giving  Great  Britain  forty-eiglit  hours  in 
which  to  cease  her  warlike  preparations  and  agree  to  arbi- 
trate all  matters  in  dispute.     Chamberlain  replied  that  these 

^  ,    .    terms  "are  such  as  Her  Maiesty's  Government  deem  it 
Dispatch  of  •'       -^ 

Oct.  10, 1899  impossible  to  discuss,"  and  the  Transvaal  armies  immedi- 
ately invaded  Natal.  The  Orange  Free  State,  which  had  a 
defensive  and  offensive  alliance  with  the  Transvaal,  at  once 
proclaimed  war  upon  Great  Britain. 

The  allies  hoped  by  transferring  the  war  to  British  soil  to 
secure  the  aid  of  the  Dutch  in  Cape  Colony  and  Natal.  One 
body  of  troops  pushed  into  Natal,  a  second  hurried  west- 
Boer  war  ward  and  laid  siege  to  Kimberley  and  Mafekiug.  Both 
(1899-1900)  ^^i^ggg  places  held  out  until  relief  expeditions  arrived; 
and  although  General  Boiler  wholly  failed  to  expel  the  Dutch 
from  Natal,  General  White  stoutly  defended  the  important 
center  of  Ladysmith.  Not  only  did  the  Dutch  in  Cape  Colony 
fail  to  revolt,  as  the  Boers  had  expected,  but  Great  Britain's 
most  distant  colonies,  Canada  and  Australia,  proved  their 
loyalty  by  sending  large  bodies  of  troops  to  serve  in  South 
Africa.  Lord  Roberts,  who  soon  succeeded  Buller  as  com- 
mander in  chief,  at  once  assumed  the  offensive  in  the  center, 
and  thus  forced  the  Boers  to  draw  in  their  widely  separated 
armies.  First  the  Orange  Free  State  and  then  the  Transvaal 
was  overrun,  each  being  declared  annexed  to  the  British  domin- 
ions as  soon  as  its  capital  was  taken  (May,  October,  1900). 
President  Kruger  sought  safety  in  Portuguese  East  Africa,  and 
became  an  exile  in  European  countries,  while  scattered  bands 
of  Boers  maintained  a  guerilla  warfare  in  the  northeast  against 
General  Kitchener,  now  in  command  of  the  British  forces.  In 
May,  1902,  the  last  belligerents  submitted  to  the  British,  who 
treated  their  defeated  enemies  with  generous  consideration. 

Russia  has  long  coveted  an  outlet  for  the  commercial  prod- 
ucts of   western    Asia  through  Persia  to   the   Indian  Ocean. 


TIIK   rNITKI)    KINGDOM    SINCE    1885  529 

Great  Britain,  on   the  other  hand,  lias  always  thought  it  as 
imjmrtant  to  protect  Persia  as  to  protect  Turkey  from  Rus- 
sian influence;    for  just  as  a  Russian  fleet  acting  from    620    Great 
Constantinople   might   cut   off  Great   Britain   from   the  _     ^"^^^°- 
Suez  Canal,  so  a  similar  fleet  issuing  from  the  Persian  Persia 

Gulf  might  occupy  the  mouth  of  the  Red  Sea  with  the  same 
result.  For  a  long  time,  British  influence  was  supreme  in 
Persia;  but  during  the  Boer  War  of  1899-1902,  Russia  ob- 
tained from  the  shah  of  Persia  a  concession  for  a  railwa}^  from 
the  Caspian  region  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  She  also  secured 
certain  preferential  trade  rights,  but  in  1903  Great  Britain 
negotiated  a  treaty  with  the  shah,  giving  to  British  merchan- 
dise equal  terms  with  Russian  goods. 

In  like  manner  an  Eastern  problem  arose  when  Russia 
decided  to  cross  Siberia  with  a  railway,  by  means  of  which  its 
gold   and  lesser   minerals,  its   grain,  lumber,  and    furs    621    Great 

might  be  transported  eastward  and  westward  to  markets.   „     Britain 
°  ^  Kussia.  and 

The   port   of    Vladivostok   formed   the   natural   eastern  China 

terminus  of  the  road,  but  the  direct  route  to  that  port  lay 
across  Manchuria,  a  province  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  This 
district  offered  a  tempting  prize  to  Russia,  since  the  Siberian 
railway  —  could  it  swing  south  after  passing  Lake  Baikal,  to 
the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  I'echili  —  would  pour  Siberian 
products  directly  into  the  streams  of  commerce  that  flow 
through  the  Pacific.  But  the  Great  Powers  objected  to  con- 
cessions for  a  railway  through  Manchuria,  which  might  lead  to 
the  absorption  of  that  province,  and  idtimately  to  the  domi- 
nation of  Peking  by  Russia. 

This    influence  was    greatly  drfatled  by    the  other  powers, 
because  Russia  claims  exclusive  trade  rights  within  the  terri- 
tory which  she  controls.     (Jreat    Britain  —  because   sin-      622    Brit- 
subsists  not    by    production  but  by    manufacturing  and   ^^^ '  jj°q *" 
trafficking  in  the  products  of  other  nations — champions  policy 

the   policy   of   the  "open    door"   in   the   East;    that    is,  she 


530 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


insists  that  the  people  of  all  nations  shall  have  equal  facilities 
for  commerce.' 

Therefore,  when  in  1896  Russia  secured  a  concession  for  a 


The  Far  East. 


branch  of  the  Siberian  railway  through  Manchuria  to  the  Gulf 
of  Pechili,  and  when  in  1898  it  was  announced  that  she  had 


1  For  example,  in  southern  China,  Great  Britain  early  secured  treaties 
which  threw  open  the  entire  Yangtze  hasin  to  the  trade  of  all  nations,  and 
which  guaranteed  that  exclusive  control  of  that  region  should  never  be  con- 
ceded to  any  one  power.  Therefore  within  that  district,  British,  French, 
German,  Russian,  and  American  capitalists  and  traders  compete  on  equal 
terms  for  banking  privileges,  mining  rights,  railroad  and  canal  concessions, 
and  for  tlie  sale  of  their  various  products. 


'rilK    INII'Kl)    K1N(;I><»M    SINCK    l>s-» 


O.-Jl 


secured  a  lease  of  Tort  Arthur  tor  ninety-iiiut'  years  and  was 
to  convert  this  port  at  once  into  an  iniprej^nahU-  military  sta- 
tion with  arsenals,  dockyards,  and  naval  and  military  stores, 
—  all  the  powers  interested  in  the  fate  of  China  were  greatly 
disturbed.  Great  Britain  hastened  to  lease  from  China  the 
port  of  Weihaiwei  "  for  so  long  a  period  as  Russia  shall 
remain  in  possession  of  Tort  Arthur";  and  at  once  began  to 


P(»UT    IlK    WkIII  AIWKI,    ("HINA. 

convert  it  into  a  fortress  and  coaling  station.  P.ut  this  port 
was  soon  f(»und  to  be  not  worth  fortifying,  because  (Jennany 
had  secured  a  lease  of  the  rest  of  the  Shantung  peninsula, 
thus  isolating  Weihaiwei  and  rendering  it  liable  to  attack  by 

land 

In    VMH)  a  bloody  outbn-ak    against  fort'igut-rs   was  started 
in   northern  China  by  bodies  of    natives    associated   together 
puriKjrting  to  seek  athletic  training,  and  therefore  nick-      623    Rub 
named  "  lioxers.'"     Throughout  the  rural  distriets,  Chris-   "^^u^f^^Yn 
tian  missionaries  and  their  converts  were  massacred,  the     Manchuria 
capital  fell  under  the  control  of  the  raiders,  the  German  min- 


532  GREATER   ENGLAND 

ister  was  slain,  and  the  other  foreign  ministers  and  residents 
were  besieged  in  the  British  legation,  where  they  had  taken 
refuge.  As  Russia  was  determined  to  interfere  for  the  restora- 
tion of  order,  the  other  Great  Powers,  with  Japan  and  the 
United  States,  had  no  choice  but  to  cooperate  with  her. 
Peking  was  captured  by  the  allied  troops ;  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment, which  apparently  had  connived  at  the  Boxer  movement, 
was  forced  to  make  reparation  for  the  outrages  upon  foreigners  ; 
and  order  was  restored.  Meanwhile,  under  the  pretext  of 
guarding  the  Manchurian  branch  of  the  Siberian  railway, 
Russia  filled  Manchuria  with  troops, '  and  refused  to  with- 
draw them  "  until  it  should  be  safe  to  do  so."  Great  Britain, 
although  suspicious  and  resentful,  was  -unwilling  to  go  to  war 
on  this  ground  alone;  but  she  took  pains  to  cultivate  the 
friendship  of  Japan,  Russia's  bitterest  enemy  in  the  Orient. 
The  result  was  a  treaty  of  defensive  alliance  between  Great 
Britain  and  Japan  (February,  1902),  to  become  operative  if 
either  country  should  be  attacked  by  more  than  one  power. 
Owing  to  a  similar  convention  between  Russia  and  France, 
Great  Britain  could  take  no  part  in  the  contest  for  Manchuria 
which  broke  out  between  Japan  and  Russia  in  1904. 

It  is  possible  for  us  only  to  touch  upon  the  brilliant  work 
of  Englishmen  in  literature,  in  science,  and  in  art  during  the 
reign  of  Victoria.      Macaulay  by  his  vivid  imagination 
rian  litera-    made  history  as  fascinating  as  a  novel ;  Dickens,  Thack- 
ture,  e  c.        eray,  and  George  Eliot,  by  their  keen  and  accurate  por- 
traiture of  human  nature,  made  the  novel  as  true  and  as  real  as 
history.     Tennyson  and  Browning  head  a  long  list  of  poets,  of 
matchless  power  and  beauty.     Carlyle,  Ruskin,  and  Arnold  by 
their  critical  essays  and  lectures  gave  new  earnestness  and  a 
new  uplift  to  English  thought  on  social,  religious,  and  sesthetic 
subjects.     In  science  Darwin  and  Herbert  Spencer  gave  to  the 
world   a  wonderfully  profound   and    complete   theory  of   the 
history  of  the  physical  universe  in  their  doctrine  of  Evolution ; 


TllK    rMlKl)    KlNtiDii.M    SINCE    1885 


533 


Huxley  and  Tyiulall  illuminatt'd  many  fields  of  science  by  their 
subtly  devised  experiments  and  their  clear  exposition,  and 
Lord  Kelvin  added  greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  the  ether  phe- 
nomena—  light,  heat,  electricity,  and  magnetism.  In  the  field 
of  art,  l'.urne-Jones  and  Watts  stand  supreme,  although 
Leighton,  Millais,  Tadcnia,  and  Whistler  have  all  done  brilliant 
work. 

On  January  2'J,  11)<»1.  occurred  the  death  of  Queen  Victoria, 
after  a  reign  of  sixty-four  years,  the  longest  in  English  his- 
tory. Noble,  up-   625.   Acces- 
Mi       sion  of  Ed- 
^.     ,wise,  uu.l      ^3,dvii 

l>atriotic  in  her  (1901 1 

jiublic  functions,  ;i 
devoted  wife  and 
mother,  Queen  Vic- 
toria commanded  as 
deeji  and  true  regard, 
if  not  as  enthusiastic 
admiration,  as  her 
great  predecessor 
(.)iiccn  Klizalieth. 
\N'ith  less  authority 
in  the  governnu'ut, 
>-lie  exerted  a  con- 
stant influence  over 
her  ministers  in  the 
direction  of  peaceful 
and  good  government.  Her  son,  Edward  VII.,  who  succeeded 
her,  entered  \i]ton  his  duties  with  a  maturity  of  character  and 
an  experience  in  pul)lic  alTairs  that  augured  well  for  his  reign. 
Forster's  Education  .\ct  of  1.S70  (§  (')03)  provided  chiefly  for 
the  creation  of  a  prinuirv  school  system,  but  it  left  the  626  Educa- 
field  of   secondary   educuticm    to   the   endowed    schools.  ,1902) 

church  schools,  and  private  pay-schools,     in  VM)'J  the  Wynd- 


KiN.;  Ki.wAitn  VII.   in  I'.lOl. 


534  GREATER   ENGLAND 

ham  Education  Act  was  passed,  by  which  the  entire  national 

school  system  was  remodeled,  government  aid  was  extended 

to  secondary   schools,   and   the   administration   of   schools   in 

Scotland  and  England  was  unitied.      The  act  was  so  framed 

as  to  bolster  up  the  (Jhurch  of  England  schools  by  money  grants 

and  by  increased  privileges,  and  therefore  was  bitterly  attacked 

by  dissenters  who  objected  to  the  expenditure  of  public  money 

in  aid  of  sectarian  instruction. 

In  1903  was  passed  what  it  was  hoped  would  be  the  final 

measure  of  relief  for  Ireland,  a  Land  Act  framed  after  long 

„«-    .,  •  ■.-      and   friendly  consultation    between  representative  land- 

627.  Irish  -^  .      ^ 

Land  Bill       lords  and   tenants.     The  bill  —  which  merely  extended 

^^^^^'  the  priuciple  of  the  Gladstone  Land  Act  of  1870  (§  602) 

and  of  several  later  land-purchase  measures  —  aimed  (1)  by 
money  loans  to  make  the  government  instead  of  individuals 
the  landlord  until  such  time  as  the  Irish  tenant  could  gradually 
pay  for  his  farm  ;  (2)  to  arrange  in  the  interim  for  an  equitable 
rent-scale,  taking  account  of  possible  changes  in  land  values 
and  prices  of  products ;  (3)  to  pay  the  landlords  even  gener- 
ously for  their  extinguished  titles,  thus  putting  the  cost  of 
righting  past  wrongs  upon  the  whole  British  people. 


During   the   last   years    of   the   nineteenth    century.    Great 
Britain  had  to  strain  every  nerve  to  defend  her  vast  colonial 
628    Sum-     ^"'^  commercial  interests.     In  South  Africa,  stationed  on 
iJiary  the  southern  trade  route,  the  hostile  Boers  were  subdued 

at  a  frightful  cost  of  blood  and  treasure  ;  in  Eg3^pt,  guardian  of 
the  northern  route,  the  Sudan  was  reconquered  and  the  control 
of  the  whole  Nile  valley  assured.  In  Persia  and  in  Afghanis- 
tan, whence  Russia  threatens  India,  Great  Britain  has  barely 
held  her  own.  In  the  far  East,  the  principal  field  for  commer- 
cial enterprise  during  the  twentieth  century,  the  contest  for 
supremacy  is  still  unsettled.  Russia's  advantage  in  her  mili- 
tary possession  of   Manchuria  and  her   influence  in  northern 


TIIK    I'MIKI)    KIN(;i)(>M    sINCK    1885 


535 


ChiiKi  has  been  practically  destroyed  as  a  result  of  her  war 
with  Japan ;  Great  Hritain  has  a  far  stronger  advantage  in 
tlie  fact  that  tlie  interests  of  all  other  countries  favor  her 
demand  for  an  "  open  door "  to  trade.  At  home,  the  happ}- 
solution  of  the  land  question  promises  to  end  the  long  strife 
with  Ireland. 


TOPICS 

(1)  Show  wliy  a  scpaniU-  rarliaiiient  for  Ireland  was  less  feasible  Suggestive 
in  1880  than  before  1800.  (2)  Can  you  see  any  plausible  arguments  ^°v^'^^ 
in  favor  of  "plural  voting'*  ?  (3)  On  what  facts  couKl  the  United 
States  bjise  its  claim  that  the  seals  in  Bering  Sea  were  the  property 
of  the  United  States?  (4)  How  could  a  war  of  Great  Britain 
against  Venezuela  endanger  the  intere.sts  of  the  United  States  ? 
(;'))  Did  the  '•  right  of  .self-defense "  apply  to  both  sides  of  the 
Tran.svaal  ijuestion  ?  ((>)  Do  you  think  Great  Britain  should 
have  yielded  to  I'resident  Kruger's  ultimatum?  (7)  Trace  on  a 
map  tlie  route  of  a  jjossible  "  Cape  to  Cairo"  railway.  (8)  Why 
did  not  General  Kitchener  use  the  Nile  for  carrying  his  army  to 
the  Sudan  ?  (9)  What  especial  interest  has  the  United  States  in 
Ku.ssia's  eastern  policy  ? 

(10)  The  Home  Rule  Bills  of  1880  and  1802;  their  differen- 
ces, and  their  defect-s.  (11)  A  character  sketch  of  Gladstone. 
(VJ)  The  .Vlaska  seal  fisheries  ;  their  peculiar  conditions,  and  their 
commercial  importance,  (l.'l)  An  account  of  Jameson's  rai<l. 
(14)  The  diamond  fit-Ids  and  gold  mines  of  South  Africa. 
(16)  The  irrigatiiin  .system  installed  by  Knglish  engineers  in 
Egypt.  (16)  Japan  and  Ru.ssia  in  Korea.  (17)  Siege  of  the 
fUiropeans  in  Peking.  1!M)0.  (18)  The  pre.sent  Welsh  national 
movement.     (10)  Objections  to  the   Wyndham  education  act. 


Search 
topics 


REFERENCES 

See  maps,  pj).  .'>lii.  018,  .')-j7.  ."i4"i  :    I'dole.  Ilisturidil  Alius,  ma|>s    Geography 
Ixxxix.  XI'.  ;  Keich.   Xnn  .S7 ««/*/( ^s'  Athis,  maps  :;7,  o2. 

Bright,   Ilistnrij  nf  Emjland.   \' .;   Uansome,   Adrmirid  Uislunj,    Secondary 
10:;i-1040;     Powell    and    Tout,    Ilistonj    of    Einjhind.    04;VW.S,    authorities 
1019-1021,    104:1-1040;    McCarthy,    I/isti>rij   of  f)nr   Oirn   Times, 
1880-1807,  chs.  xi.-xxv.  ;  MorUy,  IJfi-  i>fi,'l>i<lsti>,i>.  III.,  —  lirilish 
Politirnl   Portmitti  \  Oman,    Eiif/ltind  in  Ih*;  SinetceiUh   (JriUury^ 
chs.   ix.  X.  ;  Taylor,    Tln'  Furionj  Synltm  <ind  thr   Furinnj  Arts, 


536 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


Sources 


Illustrative 
works 


ch.  V.  ;  Lee,  Qtiecn  Victoria  ;  Clayden,  England  under  the  Coali- 
tion ;  Doyle,  The  Great  Boer  War ;  Schreiner,  The  South  African 
Question  ;  Churchill,  London  to  Ladysmith. 

Kendall,  Source-Book,  nos.  133,  148-151 ;  De  Wet,  Three  Years' 
War. 

Henty,  With  Boherts  to  Khartoum,  —  With  the  Allies  to  Pekin, 
—  With  Kitchener  in  the  Soudan. 


niAlTFJl    XXXVITI. 
ENGLAND'S   C()NTHI1UT1<>N     lo    (  I  VII.IZAIK  >N 

After  tracing   the  growth  of   tlie  English  people  through 
fifteen  centuries  of  progress,  the  student  has  still  to  consider 
the  relation  of  all  this  to  the  greater  civilization  (jf  which     g^g    ^..^^^ 
it    forms   a  part.      What    institutions    in    England    are     Usk  of  the 
unique  ?     What   institutions    have   furnished   types   on 
which  other  nations  have  modeled   their  own  governments  ? 
What  in  her  legal  systems,  her  social  customs,  her  temper  and 
spirit,  has   proved   of   value  to  the  world  ?     What,  in   other 
words,  has  been  her  contribution  to  the  world's  civilization  ? 

The  rejiresentative  system,  England's  first  and  foremost  gift 

to  the  world,  has   been  a  practicable    method  of   government 

"  of  the  people  by  the  people."     Democracy  in  some  form 

or  other  seems  to  be  as  old  as  the  Aryan  race;  but  John       sentative 

Fiske   has   i)ointed   out    that    the    Roman   Emi)ire    was   government 

doomed  to  fall  apart  because  the   liomans  "  liad  no  no-    Beniumnffs 

tion  of  such  a  thing  as  political  ijower  delegated  bv  the   o/yewEn<;- 
^  *  '■  .  .  land,   16 

people   to   representatives  who   were   to  wield   it   away 

from  home  and  out  of  sight  of  their  constituents."  Such  a 
system  of  delegated  powers  of  government  was  first  thor- 
oughly worked  out  in  the  English  village,  the  English  hun- 
dred, and  the  English  shire;  and  it  constitutes  to-day  the  chief 
strength  of  an  empire  more  vast  than  Rome  ever  ruled. 

With  the  representative  system  is  boimd  up  the  i>rinciple 
of  popular  lil)erty.     From  the  beginning  tt)  the  end  of      g^^    p^^ 
English  history,  the  student  is  confronted  by  the  word  eonal 

"freeman."      During   the    Middle    Ages,    while    France  *    ^ 

was  building   up  a  most   jiowerful  tyraimv.   while   (Jerniany 

637 


538  GREATER   ENGLAND 

was  the  prey  of  overbearing  princes,  while  Italy  was  cheated 
with  the  shadow  but  not  the  substance  of  democracy,  the 
English  people  clung  to  their  birthright  of  freedom. 

Whenever  their  liberties  seemed  to  be  in  danger,  some 
Magna  Charta,  some  Petition  of  Right,  some  Instrument  of 
Government,  some  Bill  of  Rights,  reasserted  their  fundamental 
right  to  "  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness."  The  right 
to  be  free  from  arbitrary  arrest,  the  right  of  private  property, 
the  right  of  free  speech,  and  especially  of  freely  criticising  the 
acts  of  the  government,  the  right  of  peaceable  assembly,  the 
right  of  prompt  and  fair  trial,  freedom  from  military  rule, 
equality  before  the  law,  —  all  these  and  many  more  of  our 
present  commonplaces  were  first  definitely  won  by  the  Eng- 
lish people. 

It  was  England,  too,  that  during  the  feudal  period  success- 
fully solved  the  problem  of  giving  to  each  of  the  "estates" 
within   the    body   politic    (king,    lords    temporal,    lords 

bicameral      spiritual,  commons)  only  its  due  share  in  representation. 

legislature  rji|^g  ^^^^^  result  was  the  development  of  the  modern  bi- 
cameral legislature,  a  device  which  has  been  copied  by  prac- 
tically every  European  state  except  Russia  and  Turkey.  This 
device  has  proved  especially  valuable  in  federated  states,  like 
the  present  German  Empire,  where  the  upper  house  guards 
the  interests  of  the  i)olitical  bodies  that  make  up  the  federa- 
tion, and  the  lower  acts  for  the  empire  as  a  unit.  It  is  like- 
wise applicable  to  states  (like  Italy,  France,  and  Prussia) 
which  wish  to  give  extra  weight  in  the  government  to  the 
wealthy,  the  intelligent,  and  the  politically  experienced  classes. 
In  a  hundred  different  governments,  from  Japan  on  the  east 
to  the  United  States  on  the  west,  it  has  been  adopted  as  the 
best  means  for  checking  hasty  legislation. 

The  British  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of:  (1)  peers  of  Eng- 
„„  land  by  new  creation  or  by  hereditary  right;    (2)   repre- 

of  Lords         sentative   peers    of    Scotland,    sitting    for    the    term    of 


ENGLAND'S    CONTKlMlTIoN    To    CIVILI/A  TIoN 


r>:]\) 


Parliament;  (.">)  representative  peers  of  Ireland,  sitting  for 
life;  (4)  lords  spiritual,  that  is,  arelil)isliops  and  certain 
bishops  of  the  ("hurcli  of  England.  In  iy(H)  it  numbered  live 
hundred  and  ninety  one  members,  an  increase  of  one  lunidred 
and  ninety  since  the  year  1830.  Its  powers  are  restricted  by 
the  fact  that  it  may  not  originate  or  amend  a  money  bill,  and 
by  the  fact  that  it  must  ratify  any  bill  on  which  the  House 
of  Commons  insists  (§  564).  Three  members  constitute  a  quo- 
rum for  the  transaction  of  business.  The  presiding  officer  is 
the  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  the  realm. 


Intkkior  <»k  thk  Housk  ok  Commons,  Uki.".. 

Tin'  House  nf  ('(unmons  contains  si.\  hundred  and  seventy 
representatives  of  parliamentary  boroughs  and  counties  in 
Hugla!id,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  The  county  534  House 
mendMMs,  or  knights  of  the  shire,  in  theory  represent  ofCommouB 
the  lantlholding  inttMcst,  while  the  borougli  members  repre- 
sent trade  and  other  civic  interests.  Tliev  are  ejected  in  a 
general  election  and  iiold  otiice  for  seven  years  unh'ss  Parlia- 
ment is  previously  dissolved.     It  is  technically  impossible  for 


540 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


Method  of  reserving  Seats  in  the 
House,  of  Commons. 


a  member  to  resign  his  seat ;  but  as  appointment  to  a  salaried 
office  involves  loss  of  membership  in  the  house,  the  steward- 
ship of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds — a  sinecure  office  formerly  con- 
cerned with  the  care  of 
the  crown  forests  on  the 
Chiltern  Hills — is  now 
used  as  a  loophole  for  per- 
sons wishing  to  vacate 
their  seats.  Single  va- 
cancies are  at  once  filled 
by  "  by-elections."  The 
deliberations  of  the  house 
are  guided  by  the  speaker, 
who  is  elected  by  agree- 
ment between  the  political 
parties,  and  generally  is 
reelected  from  time  to  time  regardless  of  political  changes  in 
successive  elections. 

Since  the  Act  of  Settlement  (1701)  the  monarch  holds  his 
crown  by  right  of  hereditary  succession,  on  the  sole  condition 

„«.    ,-■  that  he  must  be  a  Protestant.     His  formerly  vagVie  sover- 

635.   Mon-  -^        * 

arch  and       eign  rights  are  now  limited  by  the  Bill  of  Rights  (1689), 
counci  1^^^^  ^^^  theory  he  still  exercises  certain  prerogatives :  for 

example,  he  may  raise  individuals  to  the  peerage ;  may  sum- 
mon, dissolve,  and  prorogue  Parliament;  gives  or  withholds 
his  consent  to  acts  of  Parliament ;  appoints  to  offices  in  church 
and  state ;  may  pardon  condemned  criminals ;  may  make  peace 
and  wai".  In  actual  practice  the  veto  power  is  never  exercised 
(since  1707),  and  all  the  other  powers  above  mentioned  are 
exercised  under  the  advice  of  a  committee  of  the  privy  coimcil 
called  the  Cabinet.  The  Privy  Council  is  nominally  a  perma- 
nent bodj^  of  advisers  to  the  crown ;  actually  it  is  that  part  of 
the  councilors  who  at  the  moment  are  ministers ;  and  it  thus 
constitutes  the  legal  macliinery  for  carrying  into  effect  deci- 


KN(iF-AM)S    ((IN  rKlHT  rioN    To    CIVII.I/A  ri<  »N         .",41 

sions  of  the  ininistry — all  royal  orders,  proclamations,  etc., 
beiu'j;  issued  ''  by  the  king  in  council."  It  retains  some  ancient 
judicial  and  administrative  powers;  and  a  few  commissions 
wliich  have  charge  of  executive  business  —  the  lioard  of 
Trade  (1786),  the  Committee  on  Education  (1839),  the  Local 
(rovernment  Board  (1871)  —  are  technically  sub-committees  of 
the  privy  council. 

The  Cabinet  system  —  the  fruit  of  England's  greatest  Revo- 
lution of  1()8*J — ^is  a  means  by  which  the  administrative  and  ex- 
ecutive departments  uuiv  work  harmoniously.     ^lost  con-        „„„    _ 

bob.    Tne 

stitutional  states  in  Europe  now  have  cabinets  practically  Cabinet 

modeled  on  that  of  Great  Britain.      In  the  United  States,  system 

although  the  name  is  in  use,  the  essential  features  of  the  Brit- 
ish system  are  lacking  —  the  I'resident's  Cabinet  does  not  of 
necessity  express  the  will  of  the  lower  house,  and  it  does  not 
frame  the  most  important  legislative  measures  ;  but  it  should 
be  noted  that  at  the  time  when  the  United  States  became  inde- 
pendent, the  Cabinet  system  proi)er  had  temporarily  broken 
down  in  Great  Britain.  At  present  the  British  Cabinet  (or  the 
Ministry,  or  the  (Jovernment,  as  it  is  variously  called)  is  the 
instrument  for  embodying  the  will  of  the  nation  in  legislative 
bills,  and  carrying  it  out  in  pr:icli(u>. 

The  history  of  a  typical  ('al)inet  is  substantially  as  follows: 
After  an  election  has  determined  the  ])olitical  make-up  of  a 
new  House  of  (\)mnions,  the  sovereign  sends  for  tlie  637  Atypi- 
leader  of  that  party  whi(th  has  the  majority  of  the  mem-  cal  Cabinet 
bers  and  retpiests  him  to  form  a  ministry.  This  prime  minister, 
or  premier,  selects  from  members  of  his  party  a  group  of  per- 
sons (mostly  memlxMs  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House 
of  Commons)  willing  to  work  in  harmony  with  him,  and  deter- 
mines what  executive  office  each  person  can  most  satisfactorily 
till.  Having  thus  prepared  a  list  containing  from  sixteen  to 
twenty  salaried  offices  (including  the  secretaryships  for  Home 
Affairs,  Foreign  .Vtfairs.  Colonial  Affairs,  War,  India,  and 
wai.kkh's   kn<j.    iii-»t. — 33 


542  GREATER   ENGLAND 

Ireland,  together  with  the  lordships  of  the  Admiralty  and  the 
Treasury,  the  chancellorship  of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  presi- 
dencies of  various  boards),  he  presents  his  list  of  nominees  to 
the  sovereign,  who  makes  the  official  appointments. 

The  Cabinet  thus  formed  is  merely  a  convenient  practical 
device  for  securing  united  action,  and  not  a  creature  of  the 

638  Cabi-     ■^^'^^*     ^^  meets  at  the  call  of  the  prime  minister  to  formu- 
net  bills         late  bills  of   state  policy  on  the  great  questions  up  for 

action  in  Parliament,  but  no  formal  record  of  its  meetings  is 
kept.  Certain  days  are  set  apart  by  Parliament  for  the  con- 
sideration of  Cabinet  measures  (government  bills).  Each  bill 
passes  through  three  "readings"  —  one  to  introduce  it  to  the 
house,  one  to  start  debate,  the  third  to  show  its  final  form  after 
debate  and  possible  amendment.  If  a  government  bill  fails  to 
pass,  the  ministry  resigns  —  the  theory  being  that  those  who 
have  framed  it  no  longer  express  the  will  of  the  dominant 
party,  and  therefore  of  the  nation.  The  ministers,  however, 
may  request  the  sovereign  to  dissolve  Parliament,  if  they  are 
convinced  that  a  fresh  election  will  give  them  a  majority  in 
favor  of  the  bill.  , 

It  is  only  natural  that  more  features  of  English  civilization 
should  reappear  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  state, 

639  Local    except,  perhaps,  Canada  and  Australia.      The  system  of 
government  town,  city,  and  county  government  in  New  England,  of 

county  and  parish  government  in  Virginia,  are  the  gifts  of  Eng- 
land to  the  new  world;  the  legal  system  prevailing  through 
the  United  States  (except  Louisiana)  is  based  upon  English 
common  law;  the  constitutions  of  most  of  the  original  states 
go  back  to  charters  granted  by  English  monarchs;  and  all 
these  are  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  those  cornerstones  of  the 
British  Constitution  —  Magna  Charta  and  the  Bill  of  Rights. 
640.  Gov-  The  free  government  which  England  has  won  for  her- 

ernment  of     ^p|£  gj-^g  -^^^^  given  to  her  colonial  children  wherever  it 

depend-  ' 

encies  is  practicable.     Professor  J.  11.  Seelev  has  pointed  out 


ENC.LAND'S    n  >N  IIMIU   11"  )N     \n    CIV  II.IZA  ri< 'N         ■>{■'> 

that  in  tho  ci^htj'tMitli  contiiiy  all  iiKiritimo  states  conceived 
"i'  tlit'ir  colonics  as  subject  dependencies;  but  tin-  n-volt  of 
the  American  colonics  taught  Enjgland  a  lesson.    Canada,  Seeley, 

Australia,  Caiie  Colony,  and  most  of  the  other  large  de-  J'jJ^  o/kZ'. 
pendencies  possess    representative   institutions   as  com-  land.  rtt.  :m 
plete  as  those  in  England,  and  their  liberty  is  limited  only 
by  the  frequently  exercised  veto  power  of  the  crown.     Even 
the  smaller,  or  crown  colonies  are  given  as  full  right  oi   self- 
government  as  local  conditions  will  allow. 

India,  of  course,  is  unique.  Its  oriental  peoples  can  not  yet 
be  left  to  govern  themselves  like  Euro[)eans,  but  even  in  India 
native  rule  under  ancient  customs  is  maintained  as  far  as 
practicable,  and  the  largest  possible  measure  of  freedom  is 
1,'ranted  to  the  individual.  Great  Britain's  system  of  world- 
empire —  her  successful  rule  over  colonies  ranging  from  India 
with  its  280,000,000  of  subjects  to  Fanning  Island  with  its 
population  of  30 — sets  a  standard  for  all  other  colonizing 
powers,  and  challenges  the  admiration  of  the  world. 

To  an  imperial  .system  like  Great  Britain's,  purity  in  govern- 
ment and    trained    .skill  in  administration   are    indispensable. 
We  accordingly  find  that  she   compels  all  members  of      641    Civil 
the  Commons  who  accept  office  from  the  crown  to  offer      ^°    ^^^^'^ 
themselves  to  their  constituents  for  reelecti(jn;  she  dis-  ssrvice 

qualifies  election  officers,  sheriffs,  and  government  contractors 
from  sitting  in  Parliament,  and  slie  also  makes  bribery  in 
elections  a  temporary  or  permanent  disqualification.  Her 
civil  service  lias  ])e»'n  since  1.S71  upon  a  competitive  basis, 
the  offices  carefully  graded,  and  i>romotion  chiefiy  by  merit. 
Her  diplomatic  service  is  similarly  oriraui/.ed.  the  higlier 
officials  being  uniformly  exjierienced  men,  well  j)aitl.  and 
secure  in  their  tenure.  In  the  consular  service,  all  candidates 
are  tested  by  competitive  examinatii»n ;  those  intended  for 
service  in  the  Ottoman  dominions  undergo  a  two-years'  train- 
in"  in  oriental  languau'e-^  :if    'nvernment  expense  l»'fore  taking 


%^  EM  P,v5E.^^gS3«i 

y  N7    ,  ,  „  ,  t'^    C^       '^^T^.A-tli--'.;-r7_*'v..kul.l 

'        T-    '-^^^-^-L  -A    C    M    I    It   X  ^  c  Olf*.'""'" 


P  A 

ina   ^PHILIPPINE        <•«« 

>  lii,  1».         .  ..•  •..   \ 


I.onk-ilii,lr         :tO 


545 


546  GREATER   ENGLAND 

up  their  residence  abroad,  and  those  destined  for  the  far  East 
are  trained  as  secretaries  to  the  diplomats  in  the  districts  to 
which  they  will  later  be  assigned. 

Great  Britain's  system  of  world-empire  is  closely  connected 
with  her  supremacy  on  the  sea,  both  military  and  commercial. 

642.  Eng-  I^  was  as  hardy  mariners  that  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and 
lands  navy    Danes  won  their  foothold  in  Britain.     By  the  first  of  a 

long  series  of  navigation  acts,  which  forbade  any  one  to 
"ship  any  merchandise  .  .  .  but  only  in  ships  of  the  king's 
V.Rich. II.,  Hegance,"  Richard  II.  (1382)  began  to  build  up  Eng- 
st.  1.  c.  3  land's  carrying  trade.  The  Elizabethan  seamen  drove 
Spain  from  the  field,  the  fleets  of  the  Stuarts  crippled  Holland, 
those  of  the  early  Hanoverians  held  France  in  check,  and 
finally  Napoleon's  folly  gave  Great  Britain  an  excuse  for 
crushing  out  all  possible  rivals,  and  enabled  her  to  monopolize 
for  a  time  the  maritime  commerce  of  the  world.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  twentieth  century  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United 
Kingdom  amounted  to  nearly  $4,000,000,000  a  year,  or  fifty 
per  cent  more  than  that  of  her  nearest  rival,  Germany. 

To  defend  this  commerce,  she  has  built  up  the  greatest;  navy 
in  the  world.  She  maintains  a  naval  fighting  force  of  100,000 
men,  and  an  always  increasing  navy  of  more  than  350  effective 
war  vessels.  Besides  these  defenses,  she  has  a  coutraet  with 
the  Cunard  Steamship  Couipany  which  permits  her  in  return 
for  an  annual  subsidy  to  convert  its  "  ocean  greyhounds  "  into 
armed  cruisers  in  time  of  war.  On  the  other  hand,  she  finds  it 
difficult  with  her  relatively  small  population  to  keep  the  ranks 
of  her  army  filled,  and  should  a  strong  hostile  force  break 
through  her  cordon  of  warships  and  effect  a. landing  on  British 
soil,  she  would  possess  no  adequate  means  of  defense. 

Great   Britain   stands    before   the   world   as   a   pioneer   in 

643.  Eng-  the  experiment  of  absolute  free  trade.  The  Wealth  of 
free-trade  ^(tf'ons,  published  by  Adam  Smith  in  1776,  dealt  the 
policy  first  effective  blow  to  the  time-honored  political  economy 


i:n(;i,.\ni)s  coniijiiu'ikin  'io  en  ii.iza  i  i«>n 


IT 


TlIK    r.KllKII    I'uriSKR    ArSTRALl.t- 

of  «,'()vt'rniiipnt  interfereiife  witli  trade;  but  owiii','  to  the 
disturbances  of  the  revohitionary  i»eiio(l,  it  .i^'ot  little  hearing 
until  the  period  of  reform.  The  progress  of  Great  l^ritaiu 
immediately  after  the  entire  abolition  of  protective  duties 
(ISOO)  was  marvelous. 

As  the  century  advanced,  however,  the  manufacturers  of  the 
United  States,  protected  from  comitetition  at  home  by  a  pro- 
tective tariff,  began  to  undersell  lUitish  numufacturers  in  their 
own  markets,  while  the  cheapness  of  American  food  stulTs 
thn-atened  to  ruin  British  farmers.  In  1*.»<).".,  dosepli  Chamber- 
lain (himstilf  a  manufacturer)  began  a  cMMipaign  to  n-store  the 
protective  system  in  the  form  of  "a  preferential  tariff  for 
iiritish  imports,  to  l)e  granted  simultaneously  with  the  impo 
sition  of  a  tax  by  the  Tnited  Kingdom  on  food  supplies  im- 
ported from  countries  other  than  tlie  colonies.  —  the  object  of 
this  mutual  arrangement  being  to  advance  the  prosperity  of 
the  colonies  by  bringing  new  covn-growing  distriets  in  them 


548  GREATER   ENGLAND 

into  cultivation,  and  at  the  same  time  making  them  better 
customers  for  British  manufactures."  Thus  the  tariff  became 
again  a  living  issue  in  British  politics. 

Finally,  Great  Britain  presents  to  the  world  an  example  of 
a  constitutional    state    without   a  tangible  constitution ;    and 
644    Enff-     of  a  complete  democracy  under  monarchical  and  aristo- 
land's  cratic  forms.     This  constitution  is  to  be  sought  (1)  in 

consti-  certain  great  documents  like  Magna  Charta  and  the  Bill 

tution  Qf  Rights;    (2)  in   innumerable  statutes  of  .Parliament 

which  deal  with  general  and  permanent  features  of  the  nation's 
life  ;  (3)  in  the  immemorial  traditions  embedded  in  the  com- 
mon law  and  custom  of  the  realm.  The  difference  between 
this  constitution  and  a  written  constitution  like  that  of  the 
United  States  or  France  lies  in  its  elasticity.  Its  foundations 
remain  unchanged  from  age  to  age ;  its  superstructure  may  be 
altered  at  any  moment  by  a  simple  act  of  Parliament  —  for 
every  act  of  Parliament  passed  in  proper  form  is  valid,  and 
supersedes  all  previous  conflicting  acts.  In  this  manner  Great 
Britain  has  been  enabled  to  present  to  the  world  the  spectacle 
of  a  nation  making  the  most  momentous  political  ^changes 
peaceably  and  deliberately,  by  force  of  public  o})inion  acting 
upon  and  through  the  constitutional  agency  of  Parliament, 
which  thus  registers  the  will  of  the  sovereign  people. 

TOPICS 

Suggestive  (1)  Show  how  a  bicameral  lee^islature  tends  to  cheek  hasty  legis- 

topics  lation.     (2)  Why  should  archbishops  and  bishops  be  entitled  to  sit 

in  the  upper  house  of  Parliament?  (3)  Why  ought  not  the  House 
of  Lords  to  originate  or  amend  a  money  bill  ?  (4)  Trace  the 
origin  of  the  title  of  the  presiding  officer  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
(5)  Distinguish  between  the  dissolution  and  the  prorogation  of 
Parliament.  (6)  What  are  the  provisions  which  compel  the  use 
of  the  Chiltern  Hundreds  whenever  a  member  of  the  lower  house 
wishes  to  vacate  his  seat,  and  when  were  they  adopted  ?  (7)  Should 
you  approve  of  having  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  the  United  States  hold  office  without  regard  to  change  of 


KXtJLAND'S   roNTIUHL  TinN    To   (T  VI  I.I/AI  inN 


ll» 


political  parties?  (8)  What  is  the  reason  for  tlie  stipulation  that 
the  kinjj  of  Great  Britain  must  be  a  Protestant?  (U)  What  is 
meant  by  the  statt-nient  in  section  (5.'>(i,  tiiat  in  1770  "the  Cabinet 
system  proper  luul  temporarily  broken  ilown  in  Ureal  Hritain  "  ? 
(10)  Are  there  any  features  of  the  British  political  system  di'scribed 
in  this  chapter  that  you  should  like  to  see  adopted  in  the  United 
States  ? 

(11)  Ci>mpare  the  organization  of  the  British  Parliament  with  search 
that  of  the  bicameral  legislature  in  France,  Germany,  or  the  United  top>c" 
States.  (1"J)  What  provision  has  been  made  for  the  ultimate 
extinction  of  the  representative  Irish  peerages?  (13)  Recent 
successful  attempts  of  the  House  of  Lords  to  defeat  legislation 
which  has  passed  the  House  of  Commons.  (14)  Show  how  the 
Cabinet  .system  serves  t<T  "embody  the  will  of  the  nation  in  legis- 
lative bills"  (§<■).•]()).  (15)  Why  should  Louisiana  be  an  exception 
to  the  rule  that  the  legal  system  prevailing  throughout  the  United 
States  is  based  on  the  Engli.sh  common  law?  (16)  Describe  a 
typical  crown  colony,  like  Hongkong,  or  Gibraltar.  (17)  Distin- 
guish between  a  colony  of  this  type  and  a  colony  like  Canada. 
(18)  Training  for  the  British  diplomatic  service.  (10)  Some  strik- 
ing episodes  in  the  British  Parliament  during  the  last  half  century. 

REFERENCES 


Hughes,  TrVo^rr'/)/!.'/ /h  British  ///.v/orv.  clus.  xiv.-xvii. ;  Mackinder, 
Britain  mitl  the  British  Seas,  ch.  xx.  ;  Lucas,  Historical  Geoymphy 
of  the  British  Colnnies. 

Montague,  Elements  of  English  Constitutional  History,  2\^-2'2^. 
Medley,  Stu(lent\i  Manual  of  English  Constitutional  History ; 
Blauvelt,  Dertlopment  of  Cahintt  (iorernment  in  Entjlawl  \  Bace- 
hot,  The  Enijlish  Constitution  ;  Taswell-Langmead.  Constitutional 
History,  chs.  xvi.  xvii.  ;  Courtney,  The  Workiny  Constitution  of 
the  I'nited  Kinytlom  ;  Katon,  Civil  Setrire  in  Englawl ;  .Moi-an, 
Theory  and  Prartire  of  the  Emjlish  (iovernutent ;  Todd,  I'arlia- 
meiilary  fiorernment  in  Enylaml ;  Palgrave,  The  House  of  Com- 
mons',  .Tenks,  Parliamentary  Emjlaml,  ch.  xii., —  The  Emjlish 
Citizen   Series. 

Cheyney,  Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social  History  «/" 
England,  ch.  x.  ;  Escott,  Enyland :  her  People.  Polity,  and  I*ur- 
suits ;  Social  Transformations  of  the  Victorian  Aye. 

Brooke,  Enylish  Literature  to  the  \orman  t'on'/uest,  —  Primer 
of  Enylish  Literature ;  Kmerson,  History  of  the  Enylish  Lan- 
yuaye. 


Geography 


Constitution 

and 

government 


Industrial 
and  social 
conditions 

Lan^iutfe 

and 

literature 


550 


GREATER   ENGLAND 


Dependen- 
cies 


Statistics 


Parkin,  Imperial  Federation  ;  Creasy,  The  Imperial  and  Colonial 
ConstitiitioiiK  of  the  Britannic  Empire  ;  Cotton  and  Payne,  English 
Colonies  and  Dependencies ;  Egerton,  Short  JSistory  of  British 
Colonial  Policy  ;  Reinsch,  Colonial  Government. 

Keltie  (editor),  The  Statesman'' s  Year-Book  ("Great  Britain"). 


The  Great  Seal  of  Great  Britain. 
''  Victoria  Dei  Gratia  Britanniarum  Regiua  Fidei  Defensor." 


APPENDIX   A 


A    T.niEF   LTST   OF    BOOKS 

(These  books,  cnstini;  about  §25.00  if  piircli<i.sctl  on  a  sins^le  order, 
are  ri'et)mmL'ii(li.'(l  for  use  when  those  included  iu  .the  genei'al 
bibliogi-aphy  are  inaccessible.) 

I.  GEOGlCArUY 

S.  K.  Gardiner,  Srhonl  Atlas  of  Einjli^h  Hixtonj.     Longmans. 

ai.r/i.     Or, 
Keich,  A  Nnw  Atlas  of  English  History.    Macmillan.    §3:25. 

II.    Gknkkai.  Histories 

J.  F.  Hriuht,  Iliiftnrij  of  Englnnd.     5  vols.     Longmans.     $7.2").       Secondary 
S.  H.  Gardiner,   StudcuCs  Uhlory  of  Emjland.      (Illustrated.)    a"''l»o"tie8 

Longmans.     •'5.J.00.     Or, 
Cyril    Kansome,   Advanced    Jli.ttorij  of   E)i</laud.    Macmillan. 

92.25. 
J.  K.  (ireen,  Sfinrt  Ilistnrij  of  thf  EnijUsh  PeupU'.     Am.  Book 

Co.     $1.20. 
C.  W.  Colby,  Selrrtions  from  th<'  Snurcis  of  English  Ilislnnj.    Sources 

Longman.s.     81,50. 
E.   K.   Kendall,   Sounc-Book  of  English  History.     Macmillan. 

III.      IIISTOUIKS   <(>VKI!I\<;    LlMITKI>    ri:itrr)I)S 

K.  A.  Freeman,   William  the  Conqueror.     Maomillan.     §0.75. 
W.  Stubbs,  The  Early  Planlagenets.     Longmans.     81.(M». 
Mrs.  J.  R.  Green,  H»nry  II.     Macmillan.     §0.75. 
.1.  Gairdner,   Thr  IIuusis  of  Lanrasdr  and  Y>irk.     Longmans, 

§1.00. 
.M.  Creighlon,  The  Age  r,f  Eliznhelh.     Longmans.     §1.00. 
S.  U.  (iardiner,    Thi-  Puritan  Hevolution.     Ltmgman.s.     §1.00. 

II.  I).  Traill.   n7////im  ///.     Macmillan.     §0.75. 
.F.  .M..rley.  Tiohrrt  W'alpnle.     Macmillan.     §0.75. 
\V.  I).  (Jreen,   William  I'itt.     .Macmillan.     §0.75. 

V.  W.  Oman.  England  in  (he  Ximteenth  Century.     Longmans. 
§1.25. 

i 


n 


APPENDIX   A 


IV.    Constitutional  History 

F.  C.  Montague,  Elements  of  English  Constitntional  History 
(chronological).     Longmans.     •'51.2").     Or, 

H.  S.  Feilden,  A  Short  Constitutional  History  of  England  (topi- 
cal).    Ginn.     -^l.'iS. 

Edw.  Jenks,  Ontlines  of  English  Local  Government.  Methuen. 
2s.  M. 

G.  B.  Adams  and  H.  M.  Stephens,  Select  Documents  of  English 
Constitutional  History.     Macmillan.     $2.25. 

V.    Industrial  History 
H.  de  B.  Gibbins,  Industrial  History  of  England.     Scribners. 

§1.20.     Or, 
E.  P.  Cheyney,  Introduction  to  the  Industrial  and  Social  History 

of  England.     Macmillan.     §1.40. 

VI.    Manual 

Acland  and  llansome,  Handbook  of  English  Political  History. 
Rivington.     $2.00. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   MATERIALS 


I.    Outline  Maps 
American  Book  Company  (Eclectic  Map  Blanks).     N.Y. 
Atkinson,  Mentzer,  and  Grover  (Ivanboe  Hist.  Note  Books). 

Chicago. 
D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.     Boston. 
Eand  and  McNally.     Chicago. 
The  McKinley  Publishing  Co.     Philadelphia. 

II.    Illustrations 

The  Perry  Pictures.     Boston. 
The  Elson  Prints.     Boston. 
Harper's  Black  and  White.     N.Y. 


APPENDIX    r, 


gkni:ral  r.ii'.LiocKAriiv 

(Titles  marked  with  an  asterisk  {')  denote  honks  fs|ieeialiy  desiral)le  for  a 
school  lihrary,  hesides  those  mentioned  in  the  Brief  List.) 

•Adams,  Jiipresentntive  liiilis/i  Orntimis.     3  vols.     N.V. 

Addison  {ed.  by  Arnold),  Sdtrtion»  fmm  the,  "•  Sinctnlnr."'     Oxf. 

Airy,  The  Etujlish  Uevolutimi  and  Lmii^  XIV.     N.Y. 

American  Historical  Association  (McLaughlin  and  others),  liejinrt  on  the 

Stuilij  iif  IliMorij  in  Srhools.     N.Y. 
Anfjlo-Saxnn  Chronicle  (see  "Giles"). 

Arblay,  Mndnme  Frances  (Burney)  d\  Diary  and  Litters.    4  vols.     N.V. 
Ashley,  Introduction  to  English  Economic  History  and  Theory.    2  pts. 

Lond. 

•  Bagehot,   The  Emjlish  Constitution.     N.V. 

•  Barnard,  A  Compunion  to  EmjUsh  Ilistonj  in  the  Mi<li(l<-  Ayes.     Oxf. 

•  Bates  and  Conian,  Enylish  History  told  l>y  Em/lish  Poets.     N.Y. 
Bateson,  Medi<vr<il  Emjland.     N.Y. 

Bede,  Eertesinstical  History  of  Enyland  (sve  "Giles"). 

*Kees\y,  Queen  Elizabeth.     N.Y. 

Blauvelt,  Derelopment  of  Cabinet  Government  in  Enyland.     N.Y. 

Bolingbrnke,  Letters.     (In  Sichel's  Bedingbroke  and  his  Times,  Vol.  II. 

N.Y.) 
Bradley,  Fight  irith  Prance  for  Xorth  Ameriea.     N.Y. 
Bn'wer,  Ileign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  the  Death  of  W'ol.sey.     2  vols.     Loiul. 
•Brewer,  The  Stndent\-<  Hume.     N.Y. 
•Brooke,  Primer  of  Engl /.•<h  Literature.     N.Y. 
Bryce,  J\ro  Centuries  of  Irish  History.      N.Y. 
Bultinch,  Age  of  Chimlry.     Bost. 
liiirUm,  History  of  Srotlanil.     8  vols.      N.Y. 
Calilicott,  English  Colonization  and  Empire.      N.Y. 
Cheyney  (editor),   I'nirersily  of  Pennsylvania  Pep'-inls.  pa.ssim.     NY. 
Child,  Church  and  Slate  under  the   Tudors.     Lond. 
Cliirol,  The  Middle  Eastern  Question.     Lond. 
•Church,  A.  J.,  The  Story  of  Early  llritain.     N.Y. 

iii 


IV  APPENDIX   B 

*  Church,  A.  J.,  Henri/  V.     N.Y. 

Church,  R.  W.,  Beginning  nf  the  Middle  Ages.     N.Y. 
Clayden,  England  under  Lord  Beaconsfield,  1S73-1SS0.     Lond. 
Clayden,  England  under  the  Coalition^  1885-189^.     Lond. 
Clemens,  Joan  of  Arc.     N.Y. 

*  Cotton  and  Payne,  English  Colonies  and  Dependencies.    N.Y. 
Courtney,  The  Working  Constitution  of  the  United  Kingdom.     N.Y. 
Cox,  The  Crusades.     N.Y. 

Creasy,  The  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World.     N.Y. 

Creasy,  Imperial  and  Colonial  Constitutions  of  the  British  Empire.     Lond. 

Creasy,  Bise  and  Progress  of  the  English  Constitution.     Loud. 

*  Creighton,  Cardinal  Wolsey.     N.Y. 

*  Creighton,  Simon  de  Muntfort.     N.Y. 
Creighton,  The  Tudors  and  the  Reformation.     N.Y. 

Cunningham,  The  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce.    2  vols. 
N.Y. 

*  Cunningham  and  McArthur,   Outlines  of  English  Industrial  History. 

N.Y.  . 
Cutts,  Parish  Priests  and  their  People  in  the  Middle  Ages  in  England. 

Lond. 
Duggan,  The  Eastern  Question.     N.Y. 

*  Eaton,  Civil  Service  in  England.     N.Y. 

*  Edwards,  The  Story  of  Wales.     N.Y. 

*  Egerton,  Short  History  of  British  Colonial  Policy.     Lond. 
Elton,  Origins  of  English  History.     Lond. 

*  Escott,  England;  her  People,  Polity,  and  Pursuits.     N.Y.         , 
Frazer,  The  Story  of  British  India.     N.Y. 

Freeman,  Groicth  of  the  English  Constitution.    N.Y. 

*  Freeman,  Old  English  History.     N.Y. 

*  Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest.    G  vols.     Oxf. 

*  Freeman,  Short  History  (fthe  Norman  Conquest.     N.Y. 
Friedman,  Anne  Boleyn.     2  vols.     N.Y. 

*  Froude,  English  Seamen  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.     N.Y. 

*  Froude,  History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Death  oj 

Elizabeth.     12  vols.     N.Y. 
Gairdner,  Ttie  English  Church  in  the  Sixteenth  Century.     N.Y. 

*  Gairdner,  Henry  VIL     N.  Y. 
Gairdner,  History  of  Richard  III.     N.Y. 

Gairdner  (editor).  The  Paston  Letters.     .3  vols.     N.Y. 
Gardiner,  CromwelVs  Place  in  History.     N.Y. 

*  Gardiner,  Documents  of  the  Puritan  Revolution.     N.Y. 
Gardiner,  History  of  England,  1603-1640.     10  vols.     N.Y. 
Gardiner,  History  of  the  Great  Civil  War,  1642-1649.     4  vols.    N.Y. 


fJKNr.lJAI.    lUlU.KMiKAI'lIV  V 

Gardiner,   HislDry  <>/  (he  Commomrealth   and    Prnd-ctorate,  1G49-1(V'>6. 

4  vols.     N.Y. 
•Gardiner,  Olivir  CrotiimU.     NY. 

•  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documi-nts  lltitntnitivr  of  Englinh  Church  JIistor>i.   N.Y. 
•Giles  (editor),  lieth's   Eciicsinstical    Hiatory,  and    The  Aiujlo-Saxon 

Chroiiirl,-.     X.Y. 

Gueist,  Jli.siori/  of  the  English  C'onsdlution.     2  vols.     Loud. 

Gower,  Sir  Joshua  Jfiiitinhls,  his  Lifr  and  Art.     N.Y. 

Green,  J.  R..  Cunquist  if  Eufjlund.     N.Y. 

Green,  J.  H..  History  if  the  EmjUsh  People.     4  vols.     N.Y. 

Green,  J.  H..  Mnkinij  of  Eutjland.     N.Y. 

Green,  J.  !{.,  tihort  (ieoijraphij  of  the  liritii^h  Isles.     N.Y. 

•Green.  Mrs.  J.  K.  (editor),  Short  History  of  the  Emjlish  People  (illus- 
trated).   4  vol.s.     N.Y. 

•  Hale,  Fall  of  the  Stuart.f.     N.Y. 
Hannnond,  Charles  James  Fox.     N.Y. 
»  Harrison,  F.,  Oliver  Crornirell.     N.Y. 

Ilauiihton,  A  Physieal,  ludu.'itrial,  and  Historical  Geography  ef  England 

and  Wales.     Lond. 
Henderson,  Select  Historical  Docunients  cf  the  Middle  Ages.     N.Y. 

•  Henderson,  Side  Lights  on  English  History.     N.Y. 

•  Hill,  Liberty  Documents.     N.Y. 

Holies,  Monoirs  of  Denzil,  Lord  Holies,  1641-164S.     Lond. 

Hughes,  Geography  in  British  History.     Lond. 

Hughes,  T.,  Life  of  Alfred  the  Great.     N.Y. 

Hume,  I).,  History  of  England  {st^t  "Brewer"). 

•Hume,  M.  A.  S.,  Sir  Walter  Ralegh.     N.Y. 

Hutton.  Sir  Tliomas  More.     Lond. 

Inderwick.  The  Interregnum.  1048-1000.     Lond. 

Innes,  Britain  and  her  liirals,  17i;i-1780.     Lond. 

•  Inne.s,  Cranmer  and  the  Reformation  in  England.     N.Y. 
Innes,  A  Short  History  of  the  BritLth  in  India.     Lond. 
•Jenks.  Evolution  <f  the  Cahiuet  System  in  England.     N.Y. 
•.lenks.  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies.     N.Y. 

•  .lenks.  Parliamentary  England.     N.Y. 

.Tessop,  The  Corning  of  the  Friars,  and  Other  Essays.     Lond. 

John.son.  Tlie  Normans  in  Europe.     N.Y. 

Johnston.  Xapoleon  ;  a  Short  Biography.     N.Y. 

•.lo.se,  I'he  Groirth  of  the  Empire.     Ix)nd. 

Junius  (p.Houd.).  Letters  (ediU'd  by  Wade).     2  vols.     X.Y. 

•  Keltie  Cedil<ir),  Statesman's  Yiar-Book.     N.Y. 
Kent,  77ic  English  Radicals.     N.Y. 

•  Lang,  History  of  Scotland,    'i  vola.    Loud. 


VI  APPENDIX   B 

*  Lanier,  T/ie  Boi/s  Frnissart.     N.Y. 

*  Lanier,  The  Boifs  King  Arthur.     N.Y. 
Lanier,  The  Mabinogiun.     N.Y. 

*Larned,  History  for  Beady  Reference.     5  vols.     Springfield,  Mass. 

*  Lawless,  The  Story  of  Ireland.    N.  Y. 

*Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.     8  vols.     N.Y. 

Lecky,  History  of  Ireland.     5  vols.     N.Y. 

*Lee,  Great  Englishmen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.     N.Y. 

*  Lee,  Queen  Victoria.     N.Y. 

Lingard,  History  of  England.     8  vols.     Paris. 

*  Longman,  Life  and  Times  (f  Edward  III.     N.Y. 

*  Lucas,  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies.     Oxf. 
Luttrell,  A  Brief  Belation  of  State  Affairs.     6  vols.     Oxf. 
*Lyall,  Else  of  British  Duminion  in  India.     N.Y. 

Lyall,   Warren  Hastings.     N.Y. 
Macaulay,  Essays.     G  vols.     Bost. 

*  Macaulay,  History  of  England  from  the  Accession  of  James  II.     4  vols, 

Bost. 

*  McCarthy,  J.,'  England  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.     2  vols.     N.Y. 

*  McCarthy,  J.,  The  Ejioch  of  Beform.     N.Y. 

*  McCarthy,  J.,  History  of  Our  Own  Times.     3  vols.     N.Y. 

*  McCarthy,  J.,  Life  of  Gladstone.    4  vols.     N.Y. 
McCarthy,  J.,  Beign  of  Queen  Anne.     2  vols.     N.Y. 

McCarthy,  J.  and  J.  IL,  History  rf  the  Four  Georges.     4  vols.     N.Y. 
McCarthy,  J.  U..  An  Outline  of  Irish  History.     Lond. 
McCarthy,  J.  IL,  England  under  Gladstone,  I88O-I884.     Lond.  > 
Macdonagh,  Life  of  Daniel  CConnell.     N.Y. 
Mackinder,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas.     N.Y. 
Mackintosh,  Scotland.     N.Y. 

Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea  Bower  vjMn  the  French  Bevolution.     2  vols. 
Bost. 

*  Mahan,  Life  of  Nelson.     2  vols.     Bost. 

Mahon,  History  (f  England,  1701-1783.     9  vols,     Lond. 
Makower,  Constitutional  History  of  the  Church  of  England.    Lond. 
May,  Constitutional  History  of  England.    3  vols.     N.Y. 

*  Medley,  Student's  Manual  of  English  Constitutional  History.     N.Y. 
Melbourne,  Lord  Melbourne''s  Fapers  (edited  by  L.  C.  Sanders).    N.Y. 
Merriman,  Thomas  Cromwell.    N.Y. 

*  Meynell,  Benjamin  Disraeli.     N.Y. 

*  Moran,  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  English  Government.    N.Y. 
Morley,  Life  of  Bichard  Cohden.     Bost. 

*Morley,  Life  of  William  Etcart  Gladstone.     3  vols.     N.Y. 

*  Morris,  E.  E.,  The  Age  of  Anne.     N.Y. 


CKNERAL    BIRLIOCUAI'MV  vii 

«  Morris,  E.  E..  The  Enrhj  Ilanoverinns.     X.V. 
Morris.  J.  E..  Thf  Wilnh  Wars  <>/  EilinmJ  I.     Oxf. 
Morris,  M.,  Mnutrose. 
Monis,  W.  (>'(\,  Irtland,  14'J4-186S.     Camb. 

•  Morris.  W.  O't"..  WdUnfjton.     N.V. 

Mol\ey,  llistonj  of  thi'  United  Xetlnrldtnh.     4  vols.     N.Y. 

Mozley,  JS'.s.sf/ys.     2  vols. 

New  Eiiglanil  History  Teachers'  Association  (Foster  and  others),  Ilistnnj 

Siflldbiis.     Host. 
New  England  History  Teachers'  Association  (Ilazen  and  others),  li'i/,i,rl 

on  Historical  Soun-fs  in  Secondary  Sclimtls.     N.Y. 
Norgate,  England  under  the  Angevin  Kimjs.     2  vols.     N.Y. 
Norgate,  John  Lacklinid.     N.Y. 
♦Oman,  Art  of  War  in  the  Middle  Af/es.     N.Y. 
*Onian,  Wuririrk,  the  Kintimnkir.     N.V. 

•  Parker.  Sir  n>,l,irt  Pk-I.     N.Y. 

•Parkinan,  Fntnri-  and  Em/land  in  Xorlh  America.     0  vols.     Bost. 
Paul,  Ilistiirij  (if  Modirii  Eiitd'ind.     5  voLs.     N.Y. 
I'aiili,  Sitiiun  de  Mnntfort.     N.Y. 

•  Payne,  Ilistorij  of  European  Colonies.     N.Y. 
•Pearson,  English  Ilistnrij  in  the  Fourteenth  Century.     N.V. 
Pearson,  Ilistoriral  Maps  of  England.     Lond. 

Pearson,  History  of  England  during  the  Early  and  Middle  Ages.    2  vols. 

Lond. 
Pei)ys.  Diary  and  Correspondence.     4  vols.     N.Y. 

•  Ploetz.  An  Ejiitome  of  Ancient,  Mediieval,  and  Modern  History.     Bost. 

Pollock  and  .Maitlaml,  English  Lair  \,vfore  Edirard  I.    2  vols.     Bost. 

Powell  (general  editor),  English  and  Scottish  History  fnnn  Contempo- 
rary Sources.  (Two  series  of  11  and  4  vols,  respectively,  eilited  by 
Powell,  Barnard,  Iluttim,  Arclier,  Jaiobs,  Ashley,  Tlioinp.son,  Taylor, 
Smith,  Uait,  Terry.)     N.Y. 

Protliero,  Select  Statutes  and  Other  Constitutional  Documents.     O.xf. 

Rani.say,  Lanca.tter  and  York:     2  vols.     N.Y. 

Kani.say,  Tlie  Angevin  Empire.     N.Y. 

Hani.-viy,  The  Foundations  of  England.     2  vols.     N.V. 

Uan.some,  Rise  of  Coustituti<inal  (iocirnment  m  England.     N.Y. 

Kaw.son,  Tirenty  Famous  Xacal  Battles,     2  vols.     .^'.^■. 

Rhys,  Celtic  Britain.     N.Y. 

•  Rolj«'rts.  History  of  Canada.     Bost. 
Rodd,  Sir  Walter  Ualeigh.     N.Y. 

Rojjera,  Six.  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages.     N.Y. 

•  Ro8eber>',  Pitt.     N.Y. 

Roiitledge,  Chapters  in  the  History  of  Popular  Progress  in  England.    N.Y. 


vill  APPENDIX   B 

Russell,  C,  Nelson.     N.Y. 
Russell,  G.,  Gladstone.     N.Y. 
Scarth,  Boman  Britain.     Loud. 

*  Seeley,  Expansion  of  England.     Bost. 
Seeley,  Groioth  of  British  Policy.     2  vols.     N.Y. 
Sichel,  Disraeli.     N.Y. 

Smith,  C.  B.,  The  Life  and  Speeches  of  John  Bright.     N.Y. 

Smith,  G.,  Three  English  Statesmen.     N.Y. 

Smith,  G.,  The  United  Kingdom.     2  vols.     N.Y. 

Snell,  Wesley  and  Methodism.     N.Y. 

Southey,  Life  of  Nelson.     N.Y. 

Stephen,  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

*  Stephen  and  Lee  (editors),  Dictionary  of  National  Biography.     67  vols. 

Lend. 
Stephens  and  Hunt  (editors).  History  of  the  English  Church.   8  vols.   N.Y. 
Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of  England.     3,  vols.     N.Y. 
Stubbs  (editor),  Select  Charters  and  Constitutional  Documents.     N.Y. 
Taucock,  England  during  the  American  and  European  Wars.     N.Y. 

*  Taswell-Langmead,  English  Constitutional  History.     Bost. 
Taylor,  IL,  The  English  Constitution.     2  vols. 

*  Taylor,  W.  C,  The  Factory  System  and  the  Factory  Acts.     N.Y. 
Temple,  Sir  William,  Memoirs.    (In  his  Works,  Vols.  II.  III.    Lond.) 
*Thursfleld,  Peel.     N.Y. 

Todd,  Parliamentary  Government  in  England.     2  vols.     Lond. 

Torrens,  History  of  Cabinets.     Lond. 

*'Yo\\t,  Edward  L    N.Y.  » 

Toynbee,  7%e  Industrial  Bevolution.     N.Y. 

^Tvani  (editor),  Social  England.    0  vols.     N.Y. 

*  Traill,  Strafford.     N.Y. 

*Trevelyan,  G.  M.,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wycliffe.     N.Y. 
*Trevelyau,  G.  Q.,  The  American  Bevolution.    2  vols.     N.Y. 
Trevelyan,  G.  0.,  Early  History  of  Charles  James  Fox.     N.Y. 
Tuckey,  Joaft  o/^j-c.     N.Y. 

*  Wagner,  Modern  Political  Orations.     N.Y. 

Wakeuian  and  Hassall,  Essays  Litroductory  to  the  Study  of  English  Con- 
stitutional History.     Lond. 

*  Walpole,  History  of  England  from  IS  15.    0  vols.     N.Y. 
*Warburton,  Edivard  IIL     N.Y. 

Warner   (editor),   English  History   Blustrated  from   Original   Sources. 

(5  vols.,  edited  by  Frazer,  Corbett,  Durham,  Cunningham,  Figgis.) 

Lond. 
Windle,  Life  in  Early  Britain.     N.Y. 
Wright,  Caricature  History  of  the  Georges.     Lond. 


APPENDIX   C 

rAKAI'Iir.ASK   OF   TllK   COROXATIOX   OATH   OF 
WILLIAM    L    (l)Kc.  25,  lOGG) 

(Quoted  by  Florence  of  Worcester) 

"  To  protect  the  holy  churches  of  Goil  and  their  governors,  and  to  rule  the 
wliole  nation  subject  to  [him]  with  justice  and  kingly  providence  :  to  make 
and  maintain  just  laws,  and  straitly  to  forbid  every  sort  of  rapine,  vi. deuce, 
and  all  unrighteous  judgments." 

APPENDIX   D 

EXCERPTS  FROM  THE  'm  HAUTER   OF  LIBERTIES" 
OF   HENRY    L    (1001  a.d.) 

(Fur  the  extended  text,  see  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  No.  7.) 

1.  ...  I,  from  reganl  to  (iod.  and  from  the  love  which  1  have  towanl 
you,  in  the  first  place  make  the  holy  church  of  G.k!  free,  so  that  I  will  neither 
sell  nor  i>lace  at  rent,  nor,  when  archbishoi).  or  bishop,  tir  abbot  is  <lead,  will 
I  take  anything  from  the  domain  of  the  church,  or  from  its  men,  until  a  suc- 
cessor is  installed  into  it.  And  all  the  evil  customs  by  which  the  realm  of 
England  was  unjustly  oppressed  will  I  take  away,  which  evil  customs  I  partly 
set  down  here. 

2.  If  any  mie  of  my  barons,  or  earls,  or  others  who  linld  fn.m  me  shall 
have  died,  his  heir  shall  not  redeem  his  land  as  he  did  in  the  time  .d  my 
brother,  but  shall  relieve  it  by  a  just  and  legitimat.'  r.li.-f.  Similarly  also 
the  men  of  my  barons  shall  relieve  their  lands  from  their  lurds  by  a  just  and 
Ifgitiniatf  relief. 

:t.  Ami  if  any  one  of  the  barons  or  other  men  of  mine  wish.s  t..  give  his 
daugliter  in  marriage,  or  bis  sister  or  niece  or  relation,  he  must  s|M-ak  with 
me  .Hbout  it,  but  1  will  neither  take  anything  from  him  f.-r  this  in-rmission.  nor 
forbid  him  to  give  her  in  marriage,  unless  he  slmuld  wish  to  join  her  to  my 
enemy.  .Vnd  if  when  a  baron  or  other  man  of  mine  is  de,-\<l,  a  daughter  n>- 
mains  as  his  heir,  I  will  give  her  in  marriage  according  to  the  judgment  of 
my  barons,  along  with  her  land.  .   .  . 

.'•).  The  common  tax  on  money  wbli-h  used  t..  be  taken  ihrougb  the  cities  and 
counties,  which  was  not  taken  in  the  tim.-  of  King  F..l«ar.l,  I  now  forbid  alto- 
getluT  henceforth  to  be  taken 


X  APPENDICES   E,   F 

9.  All  murders  moreover   .    .   .   wliich  shall  be  done  henceforth  shall  be 
punished  justly  according  to  the  law  of  King  Edward. 

10.  The  forests,  by  the  common  agreement  of  my  barons,  I  have  retained 
in  my  own  hand,  as  my  father  held  them.  .  .  . 

******* 

12.  A  tirni  peace  in  my  whole  kingdom  I  establish  and  require  to  be  kept 
from  hencef<jrth. 

13.  The  law  of  King  Edward  I  give  to  you  again  with  those  changes  with 
which  my  father  changed  it  by  the  counsel  of  his  barons. 

^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^ 


APPENDIX   E 

EXCERPTS    FROM    A    CHARTER   OF    HENRY    I.   TO 
THE   CITIZENS   OF   LONDON 

(For  the  extended  text,  see  Allen's  History  and  Antiquities  of  London,  I.  53.) 

...  I  have  granted  to  my  citizens  of  London,  to  hold  Middlesex  to  farm 
for  three  hundred  pounds,  upon  accompt  to  them  and  their  heirs;  so  that  the 
said  citizens  shall  place  as  sheriff  whom  they  will  of  themselves;  and  shall 
place  whomsoever,  or  such  a  one  as  they  will  of  themselves,  for  keeping  of  the 
pleas  of  the  crown,  and  of  the  pleadings  of  the  same,  and  none  other  shall  be 
justice  over  the  same  men  of  London;  and  the  citizens  of  London  shall  not 
plead  without  the  walls  of  London  for  any  plea.  And  be  they  free  from  scot 
and  lot,  and  danegeld,  and  of  all  murder,  and  none  of  them  shall  wage  battle. 
.  .  .  and  none  shall  lodge  within  the  walls,  neither  of  my  household,  nor  any 
other,  nor  lodging  delivered  by  force. 

And  all  the  men  of  London  shall  be  quit  and  free,  and  all  their  goods, 
throughout  England,  and  the  ports  of  the  spa,  of  and  from  all  toll  and  ...  all 
other  customs.  .  .  . 

APPENDIX   F 

EXCERPTS   FROM   THE   CONSTITUTIONS   OF  CLAR- 
ENDON   (11G4  A.D.) 

(For  the  extended  text,  see  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  English  Church 
History,  no.  xxiii.) 

3.  Clerks  cited  and  accused  of  any  matter  shall,  when  summoned  by  the 
king's  justice,  come  into  his  own  court  to  answer  there  concerning  what  it 
shall  seem  to  the  king's  court  should  be  answered  there,  and  in  the  church 
court  for  what  it  shall  seem  should  be  answered  there.  .  .  . 


Ai'ri:M)i\  i;  xi 

4.    Arolil)isliops.hisli<>i)>i.  aii'l  persiins  of  the  realm  are  not  ulli)We«l  to  leave 

the  kiiijj;tloui  without  liieii >f  the  lord  the  kin^'.  .  .  . 

•  •••••• 

7.  No  one  who  holds  of  the  kini:  in  ehii-f,  ami  none  of  his  demesne  otlicers 
are  to  be  exeonimunicated,  nor  the  lands  of  any  one  of  them  to  he  put  un.h-r 
an  intertliet  mdess  tirst  the  lord  the  kinj;.  if  he  be  in  the  .•oinitry,  or  his  justi- 
ciar if  he  he  outside  the  kinj;dom,  he  applied  to.  in  or.ler  that  he  may  do  ri;;ht 
for  him:  and  so  that  what  shall  appertain  to  the  royal  eourt  he  lon.luded 
there,  and  that  what  shall  helonu  to  the  ehurch  court  be  sent  to  the  s;»me  to 
be  treated  there. 

11.  Arehbishops.  bishops,  and  all  persons  of  the  realm  who  hol<l  of  the 
kin-;  in  chief,  have  their  i»ossessions  from  the  loril  the  kinj;  as  barony,  and 
arelinswerable  therefor  to  the  kind's  justices  and  ministers,  and  follow  and 
do  all  royal  ri>;hts  an.l  customs,  and  like  all  other  barons,  have  to  I..-  present 
at  the  trials  of  the  <-onrt  of  the  lord  the  kin^' with  the  barons  until  it  comes  to 
a  judgment  of  loss  of  lind»,  or  death. 

i:'..  If  any  of  the  nobles  of  the  realm  forcibly  prevent  the  arcbbishop  or 
bishop  or  archdeacon  from  doint;  justice  in  re-ard  of  hims  -If  or  his  propl.-,  the 
lord  the  kinjr  must  brin^'  them  to  justice.  And  if  perchance  any  one  should 
deforce  the  lord  the  kinj;,  the  archbishops  an.l  bishops  and  archdeacons  must 
judge  him,  .so  that  he  gives  satisfaction  to  the  lord  the  kiiif,'. 

♦  •••••• 

Hi.  Sons  of  villeins  ou-hi  not  to  be  ordaiiie.l  without  the  assent  of  the  lord 
on  whose  land  they  an-  kn.iwn  to  bav.-  l.teu  born. 


ATI'KNDIX    (; 

EXCEIM'TS   FROM    TIIH   MAGNA   ClIAUTA  OF 

KIXC    .lOllX    (JirxK  1"),  IL'I")) 

(F.ir  the  ext.nde.1  text,  s..-  .\dams  an.l  Stephens,  Select  Docnmenlif,  no.  2«.».) 

1.    In   the  first  place  we  have  grant.-d   to  Oo<l,  and   by  this  our  pr.-sent 

chart.r  contin i.  f..r  us  ami  our  heirs  forever,  that  the  Kn;:lisb  church  shall 

be  free,  an.l  shall  bold  its  riglus  entire  ami  it.s  liberties  niiinjuri-.!.  .  .  . 

W..  have  ;;rant.-.l  m.in-over  to  all  frer  men  of  our  kiim-lom  f..r  us  an-l  our 
heirs  forev.T  all  tb.-  lib.Tli.-s  written  b.dow,  to  be  ba.l  an.l  h..lden  by  them- 
selves an.l  Ih.-ir  h.-irs  fr.mi  tis  and  our  heirs. 

•_'  If  any  of  our  .-arls  or  baroi-.s,  <ir  others  h.d.lin;:  from  us  in  rhief  by 
milUary  servi.-  shall  bav.-  -ILmI,  an.l  wb.n  he  has  .lie.l  his  heir  shall  be  of  full 
age  and  ..we  r.  li.-f .  h.-  shall  have  his  inheritan.e  by  lb-  an.ieiit  relief. 

If  moreov.T  III.-  h.-ir  ..f  any  ..ne  ..f  su.h  shall  be  un.ler  age,  ami  shall  be  in 

W  Al.KKU's   I.N.i.    llfT.  --'M 


Xll  APPENDIX   G 

wardship,  when  he  comes  of  age  he  shall  have  his  inheritance  without  relief 
and  without  a  tine. 

Neither  we  nor  our  bailiffs  will  seise  any  land  or  rent,  for  any  debt,  so 
long  as  the  chattels  of  the  debtor  are  sufficient  for  the  payment  of  the  debt. 

12.  No  scutage  or  aid  shall  be  imposed  in  our  kingdom  except  by  the  com- 
mon council  of  our  kingdom,  e.xcept  for  the  ransoming  of  our  body,  for  the 
making  of  our  oldest  son  a  knight,  and  for  once  marrying  our  oldest  daughter ; 
and  for  these  purposes  it  shall  be  only  a  reasonable  aid.  .  .  . 

1.3.  And  the  city  of  London  shall  have  all  its  ancient  liberties  and  free 
customs,  as  well  by  land  as  bj-  water.  Moreover,  we  will  and  graut  that  all 
other  cities  and  boroughs  and  villages  and  ports  shall  have  all  their  liberties 
and  free  customs. 

14.  And  for  holding  a  common  couucil  of  the  kingdom  concerning  the 
assessment  of  an  aid  otherwise  than  in  the  three  cases  mentioned  above,  or 
concerning  the  assessment  of  a  scutage,  we  shall  cause  to  be  summoned  the 
archbishops,  bishops,  abbots,  earls,  and  greater  barons  by  our  letters  under 
seal;  and  besides  we  shall  cause  to  be  summoned  generally,  by  our  sheriffs 
and  bailiffs,  all  those  who  hold  from  us  in  chief,  for  a  certain  day  .  .  .  and 
for  a  certain  place ;  and  in  all  the  letters  of  that  summons  we  will  express  the 
cause  of  the  summons  ... 

15.  We  will  not  grant  to  any  one,  moreover,  that  he  shall  take  an  aid  from 
his  free  men,  except  for  ransoming  his  body,  for  making  his  oldest  son  a 
knight,  and  for  once  marrying  his  oldest  daughter ;  and  for  these  purposes 
only  a  reasonable  aid  shall  be  taken. 

16.  No  one  shall  be  compelled  to  perform  any  greater  service  for  a  knight's 
fee,  or  for  any  other  free  tenement  than  is  owed  from  it.  » 

17.  The  common  pleas  shall  not  follow  our  court,  but  shall  be  held  in  some 
certain  place. 

20.  A  free  man  shall  not  be  fined  for  a  small  offense,  except  in  proportion 
to  the  measure  of  the  offense  ;  and  for  a  great  offense  he  shall  be  fined  in  jn-o- 
portioii  to  the  magnitude  of  the  offense,  saving  his  freehold ;  and  a  merchant 
in  the  same  way,  saving  his  merchandise ;  and  the  villain  shall  be  fined  in 
the  same  way,  saving  his  waiuage,  if  he  shall  be  at  our  mercy ;  and  none  of 
the  above  fines  shall  be  imposed  except  by  the  oaths  of  honest  men  of  the 
neighborhood. 

21.  Earls  and  barons  shall  only  be  fined  by  their  peers,  and  only  in  pro- 
portion to  their  offense. 

*****  * 

39.  No  free  man  shall  be  taken  or  impi-isoned  or  dispossessed,  or  outlawed, 
or  banished,  or  in  any  way  destroyed,  nor  will  we  go  upon  him,  nor  send 
upon  him,  except  by  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

40.  To  no  one  will  we  sell,  to  no  one  will  we  deny,  or  delay  right  or  justice. 

41.  All  merchants  shall  be  safe  and  secure  in  going  out  from  England  and 
coming  into  England  and  in  remaining  and  going  through  England,  as  well 


MA(;NA    CIIAIMA  Mil 

by  laml  as  liy  wnt.r.  for  buying  ami  sclliiii;.  frco  from  all  evil  tolls,  by  tho 
anoieiit  and  rii;litfiil  customs,  except  in  time  of  war,  ami  if  tliey  are  of  a 
land  at  war  with  ws;  and  if  snch  are  foinid  in  our  land  at  the  bfginuinK  of 
war,  tlu-y  shall  be  attached  without  injury  to  their  bo<lies  or  gootls,  until  it 
shall  be  known  from  us  or  from  our  princii>al  justiciar  iu  what  way  the  mer- 
chants of  our  land  are  treated  who  shall  be  then  found  in  the  country  which 
is  at  war  with  us;  and  if  ours  are  safe  there,  the  tnhers  shall  bi?  safe  in  our 

land. 

•  •«♦••• 

(il.   Since,  moreover,  for  the  sake  of  God,  and  for  tho  imiirovemcnt  of  our 

kingdom,  and  fiu-  the  better  quieting  of  the  hostility  sprung  up  lately  between 

us  anil  our  barons,  wo  have  made   all  these  concessions;  wishing  thein  to 

enjoy  these  iu  a  complete  and  tirni  stability  forever,  we  make  and  concede 

to  them  the  security  describeil  below;  that  is  to  say,  that  they  shall  elect 

twenty-live  barons  of  the  kingdom,  whom  they  will,  who  ought  with  all  their 

power  to  observe,  hold,  and  cause  to  be  observed,  the  peace  and  liberties 

which  we  have  concedetl  to  them,  and  by  this  our  present  charter  confirmed 

to  them;  in  this  manner,  that  if  we  or  our  justiciar,  or  our  baililTs,  or  any 

one  of  our  servants  shall  have  done  wrong  in  any  way  toward  any  one,  or 

shall  have  transgressed  any  of  the  articles  of  peace  or  security;  and  the 

wrong  shall  have  been   shown   to  four  barons  of  the  aforesaid  twenty-live 

barons,  let  those  four  barons  come  to  us  or  to  our  justiciar,  if  we  are  out  of 

the  kingiloin.  laying  before  us  the  transgression,  and  let  them  ask  that  we 

cause  that  transgression  to  be  corrected  without  delay.     And  if  we  shall  not 

have  corrected  the  tran.sgres.sioii  or,  if  we  shall  be  out  of  the  kingdom,  if  our 

justiciar  shall  not  have  corrected  it  within  a  period  of  forty  days,  counting 

from  the  time  in  which  it  has  been  .shown  to  us  or  to  our  ju.sticiar,  if  we  are 

out  of  the  kingdom;  the  aforesaid  four  barons  shall  refer  the  matter  to  the 

remainder  of  the  twenty-live  barons,  and  let  these  twenty-live  barons  with 

the  whide  community  of  the  country  distress  and  injure  us  in  every  way  they 

can;  that  is  to  say  by  the  seizure  of  oui-  castles,  lands,  possessions,  and  in 

such  other  w.-iys  as  they  can  until  it  .shall  have  been  corrected  according  to 

their  judgment,  saving  our  persirn  and  that  of  our  (|ueen  anil  those  of  our 

children;  and  when  the  correction  has  been  made,  let  them  devote  themselves 

to  us  as  they  did  before.  .  .  . 


APPENDIX   II 

rA'CKTMTS    FROM    TlIK    COXFIIIMA  TK )    CVirrAHUM 
(JF    KDWAKl)    I.    0--'^J 

(For  the  extendi'!  text,  .see  Adams  and  .Stephens,  Sflert  Documenta,  no.  4.S.) 

Edward,  by  the  frace  of  God,  king  of  Kn^iand,  lord  of  Inland,  and  duke  of 
Guyenne.  to  all  tho.se  tliai  these  present  letters  shall  hear  or  see,  (ireeting. 
1.    Know  ye  thai  we  to  the  honor  of  Goil,  and  of  lioly  (Church,  and  to  the 


xiv  APPENDICES   H,  I 

profit  of  our  realm,  have  granted  for  us  and  our  heirs,  that  the  great  Charter 
of  Liberties,  and  the  Charter  of  the  Forest,  which  were  made  by  common 
assent  of  all  the  realm,  in  the  time  of  king  Henry  our  father,  shall  be  kept  in 
every  point  without  breach.  .  .  . 

******* 

5.  And  for  so  much  as  divers  people  of  our  realm  are  in  fear,  that  the  aids 
and  tasks  which  they  have  given  to  us  beforetime  towards  our  wars  and  other 
business,  of  their  o-mi  grant  and  good  will,  howsoever  they  were  made,  might 
turn  to  a  bondage  to  them  and  their  heirs,  because  they  might  be  at  another 
time  found  in  the  rolls,  and  so  likewise  the  prises  taken  throughout  tlie  realm 
by  our  ministers  in  our  name  ;  we  have  granted  for  us  and  our  heirs,  that  we 
shall  not  draw  such  aids,  tasks,  nor  prises  into  a  custom,  for  any  thing  that 
hath  been  done  heretofore,  or  that  may  be  found  by  roll  or  in  any  other 
manner. 

6.  Moreover  we  have  granted  for  us  and  our  heirs  as  well  to  archbishops, 
bishops,  abbots,  priors,  and  other  folk  of  holy  Church,  as  also  to  earls,  barons, 
and  to  all  the  commonalty  of  the  laud,  that  for  no  business  from  henceforth 
we  shall  take  of  our  realm  such  manner  of  aids,  tasks,  nor  prises,  but  by  the 
common  assent  of  all  the  realm,  and  for  the  common  profit  thereof,  saving  the 
ancient  aids  and  prises  due  and  accustomed. 

And  for  so  much  as  the  more  part  of  the  commonalty  of  the  realm  find 
themselves  sore  grieved  with  the  maletote  of  wools,  that  is  to  Avit,  a  toll  of 
forty  shillings  for  every  sack  of  wool,  and  have  made  petition  to  us  to  release 
the  same ;  we  at  their  requests  have  clearly  released  it,  and  have  granted  that 
we  will  not  take  such  thing  nor  any  other  without  their  common  assent  and 
good  will ;  saving  to  us  and  our  heirs  the  custom  of  wools,  skins,  and  leather, 
granted  before  by  the  commonalty  aforesaid.  .  .  . 


APPENDIX   I 

EXCERPTS  EEOM   THE  SECOND   STATUTE   OF 
PRAEMUNIRE,  OF  RICHARD   II.   (1.393) 

(For  the  extended  text,  see  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  no.  9S.) 


Item,  ivhereas  the  commons  of  the  realm  in  this  present  parliament  have 
showed  to  our  redoubted  lord  the  king,  grievously  complaining,  that  whereas 
the  said  our  lord  the  king,  and  all  his  liege  people,  ought  of  right,  aud  of  old 
time  were  wont  to  sue  in  the  king's  court,  to  recover  their  presentmeiits  to 
churches.prehends,  and  other  benefices  of  holy  Church  .  .  .  ;  and  when  judg- 
ment shall  be  given  in  the  same  court  upon  such  a  plea  and  suit,  the  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  and  other  spiritual  persons  which  have  institution  of  such 


AI'I'KNDIX    J  XV 

hcnefiocs  witliiii  tlieir  jiirisilii'tioii,  be  IjoiukI,  ami  liavc  niiidc  exfculioii  of 
siu-li  jikI^iiu-iiLs  by  tbt*  kind's  coiuinaiiilnifiits  of  all  tin-  tinit-  afoiesaiil  witliout 
iiiterriiptjon  .  .  .  but  now  of  late  divers  proeesst'S  be  made  by  the  boly  father 
the  in»pe  and  censures  of  exconitnuuication  upon  certain  bishops  of  En;;land, 
because  tliey  have  nuule  execution  of  sucli  coniniandnients,  to  tlie  open  dis- 
herison t>f  tlie  saiil  crown,  and  destruction  of  the  rej;alty  of  our  said  lord  tlio 
king,  his  law,  and  all  his  realm,  if  remedy  be  not  jirovided  :  and  also  it  is  said, 
and  a  common  «-lainor  is  made,  that  the  said  father  the  pope  hath  ordained 
and  i>urposeil  to  translate  some  prelates  of  the  same  realm,  some  out  of  the, 
realm,  and  some  from  one  bishopric  into  another  within  the  sanu'  realm,  with- 
out the  king's  assent  anil  knowledge  .  .  .  : — our  said  loni  l/ie  kiufi,  bij  the 
ansent  d/ijresaUl,  unit  at  the  reijiivst  of  his  suiil  coininoiis,  Imtli  ordniiii-d  and 
e'<titblis/ied,  that  if  any  purchase  or  pursue,  or  cause  to  be  purchased  or  pur- 
suetl  in  the  court  of  Rome,  or  elsewhere,  any  such  translations,  processes,  ami 
sentences  of  excommunications,  bulls,  instruments,  or  any  other  things  what- 
soever, which  touch  the  king  our  lord,  against  him,  his  crown,  and  his  regally, 
or  his  realm,  as  is  aforesaid,  and  they  which  bring  them  within  the  realm,  or 
them  receive,  or  make  thereof  mitilicalion  or  any  other  execution  whatsoever 
within  the  same  realm  or  without,  that  they,  their  notaries,  proctirators, 
maintainors,  abettors,  fautors,  and  ctuinsellors,  shall  be  put  out  of  the  kings 
protection,  and  their  lands  and  teneujents,  goods  and  chattels,  forfeit  to  our 
l.ird  the  king;  and  that  they  be  attached  by  their  bodies,  if  they  may  be 
found,  and  brought  before  the  king  and  his  council,  there  to  answer  to  the 
cases  aforesaid,  or  that  process  be  made  auainsi  tlicMi  by  jineniunire  facias  . . . 


APPENDIX   J 

EXCKKI'I'    FKo.M    Till:    ACT  OF   SUI'UILMACY   OF 
IIHNIIN'    VIII.     (1534) 

(For  the  extended  text,  see  Gee  and  Hardy.  Dncuinents  of  Church  History, 

no.  Iv.) 

Allif  it  tUt'  king's  majesty  justly  and  rightfully  is  and  ought  to  bo  the  supreme 
head  of  the  t'linrch  of  Kngland,  and  so  is  re<'ogni/.ed  by  the  clergy  of  this 
realm  in  their  Convocations,  yet  nevertheless  for  corroboration  and  confirma- 
tion thereof,  and  for  increase  of  virtu(^  in  f'lirist's  religion  within  this  realm 
of  Kncland,  and  to  repress  ami  extirp  all  errors,  heresies,  and  otlier  enormi- 
ties and  abuses  heretofore  used  in  llu^  same:  br  it  rnurlfd  tnj  iiuthoritt/  o/ 
this  pnsput  Pdrliiiinrnt,  that  tlie  king  our  soveri'ign  lord,  his  heirs  and  suc- 
cessors, kinvrs  of  tliis  realm,  sh;ill  be  taken,  accepteil,  anil  reputed  the  only 
supreme  head  in  earth  of  tin-  Church  of  Kni;land,  called  Aiif/liinnn  Kfctenia ; 
and  shall  liave  and  enjoy.  annexe<l  and  united  to  (he  imperi.il  crown  of  this 
realm,  as  well  the  title  and  style  thereof,  as  all  lionours,  dignities,  preeml- 
nem-ies,  juris<lictions,  privileges,  authorities,  immunities,  protit.s,  and  com- 


xvi  APPENDIX   K 

modities  to  the  said  dignity  of  supreme  head  of  the  same  Church  belonging 
and  appertaining. 

•  «  «  «  *  *  « 


APPENDIX  K 

EXCERPTS   FRO.AI   THE  ACT  OE  UN^IFORMITY  OF 
ELIZABETH   (1559) 

(For  the  extended  text,  see  Gee  and  Hardy,  Documents  of  Church  History, 

no.  Ixxx.) 


III.  And  further  he  it  enacted  by  the  queen's  highness,  vrith  the  assent  of 
the  Lords  and  Commons  in  this  present  Farliameibt  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  that  all  and  .sinjjular  ministers  in  any  catliedral  or 
parish  church,  or  other  place  within  this  realm  of  England,  Wales,  and  the 
marches  of  the  same,  or  other  the  queen's  dominions,  shall  from  and  after  the 
feast  of  the  Nativity  of  St.  Jolm  Baptist  next  coming  he  bounden  to  say  and 
use  the  Matins,  Evensong,  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  and  administration 
of  each  of  the  sacraments,  and  all  the  common  and  open  prayer,  in  such  order 
and  form  as  is  mentioned  in  the  said  book,  so  authorized  by  Parliament  in  the 
said  fifth  and  sixth  years  of  the  reign  of  King  Edward  VI,  with  one  alteration 
or  addition,  of  certain  lessons  to  be  used  on  every  Sunday  in  the  year,  and  the 
form  of  the  Litany  altered  and  corrected,  and  two  sentences  only  added  in  the 
delivery  of  the  sacrament  to  the  communicants,  and  none  other  or  otherwise. 

XIY.  And  that  from  and  after  the  said  feast  of  the  Nativity  of  St.  .John 
Baptist  next  coming,  all  and  every  pei'son  ^nd  persons  inhabiting  within  this 
realm,  or  any  other  the  queen's  majesty's  dominions,  shall  diligently  and 
faithfully,  having  no  lawful  or  reasonable  excuse  to  be  absent,  endeavour 
themselves  to  resort  to  their  parish  church  or  chapel  accustomed,  or  up(m 
reasonable  let  thereof,  to  some  usual  place  where  common  prayer  and  such 
service  of  God  shall  be  used  in  such  time  of  let,  upon  every  Sunday  and  other 
days  ordained  and  used  to  be  kept  as  holy  days,  and  then  and  there  to  abide 
orderly  and  soberly  during  the  time  of  the  common  prayer,  preachings,  or 
other  service  of  God  there  to  be  used  and  ministered ;  upon  pain  of  punish- 
ment by  the  censures  of  the  Church,  and  also  upon  pain  that  every  person  so 
offending  shall  forfeit  for  every  such  offence  twelve  pence,  to  be  levied  by  the 
churchwardens  of  the  parish  where  such  offence  shall  be  done,  to  the  use  of 
the  poor  of  the  same  parish,  of  the  goods,  lands,  and  tenements  of  such 
offender,  by  way  of  distress.- 


AIM'KNDIX    L  XVll 

APPENDIX   L 

EXCERPTS   FROM   THE   PETITION  OF  RIGHT  (IGl'S) 
(Seo  Adams  and  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  no.  189.) 

To  the  Kiiif/'s  Most  Excellent  Majesty  :  — 

Humbly  sliow  unto  our  Sovcreijri'  Lord  the  KiiiR,  the  Ixinis  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons  in  Parliament  assembled,  that  whcn'us  it  is  dcclan-d 
and  enacted  by  a  statute  made  in  the  time  of  the  reijin  of  Kinf,'  p]<hvard  the 
First,  commonly  ealle<l  StulntKin  »/<?  tallnf/io  tion  cuiiceileiiilu,  that  no  tallage 
or  aid  shall  be  laid  or  levied  by  the  Kin;;  or  his  heirs  in  this  realm,  without 
the  jjoinhvill  and  assent  of  the  Archbishops,  Bishops,  Earls,  Haroiis,  Knights, 
Bur>;esses,  ami  other  the  freemen  of  the  commonality  of  this  realm:  and  by 
authority  of  Parliament  holden  in  the  live  and  twentieth  year  of  the  rei^n  of 
King  Edward  the  Third,  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that  fnmi  thenceforth  no 
person  shall  be  compelled  to  make  any  loans  to  the  Kin;;  against  liis  will, 
because  such  loans  were  against  reason  and  the  franchise  of  the  land  ;  and  by 
other  laws  of  this  realm  it  is  provided,  that  none  should  be  charged  by  any 
charge  or  imposition,  called  a  Benevolence,  nor  by  such  like  charge:  by  which, 
the  statutes  before-mentioned,  and  other  the  good  hiws  and  statutes  of  this 
realm,  your  subjects  have  inherited  this  freedom,  that  they  should  not  be  com- 
pelled to  cimtribute  to  any  tax,  tallage,  aid,  or  other  like  charge,  not  set  by 
common  consent  in  Parliament: 

Yet  nevertheless,  of  late  diverse  commi.ssions  directed  to  sundry  Commis- 
sioners in  several  counties  with  instructions  have  issue<l,  by  means  whereof 
your  people  have  been  in  divers  places  assembled,  and  required  to  lend  certain 
sums  «>f  nnmey  unto  y<uir  Majesty,  and  many  of  them  upon  their  refusal  so  to 
do,  have  had  an  oath  a<lministered  unto  them,  not  warrantable  by  the  laws  or 
statutes  of  this  realm,  and  have  been  constrained  to  become  bound  to  make 
appearance  and  give  attendance  before  your  Privy  Council,  and  in  other 
plaees,  and  others  of  them  have  been  therefore  imprisone<l,  eonlined.  and 
sundry  other  ways  molested  and  disquiete<l :  and  divers  other  cliar;;es  have 
been  laid  and  levied  upon  your  people  in  several  counties,  by  I.ords  Lieuten- 
ants, Deputy  Lieutenants,  Commissioners  for  Musters,  Justices  of  Peace  and 
others,  by  command  or  direction  from  your  Majesty  or  your  Privy  Council, 
against  the  laws  an<l  free  customs  of  this  realm  : 

And  v/irre  also  by  the  statute  called,  'The  (Jreat  Charter  of  the  Liberties 
of  England,'  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that  no  fneinan  may  bo  taken 
or  imprisoned  or  be  disseised  of  his  freehtdds  or  liberties,  or  his  free  customs, 
or  be  outlawol  or  exiled  ;  or  in  any  manner  destroyed,  but  by  the  lawful  judg- 
ment of  his  |H'ers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land : 

And  in  the  eitrht  and  twentieth  year  of  the  reign  of  King  Edwanl  the 
Thinl,  it  was  declared  and  enacted  by  authority  of  Parliament,  that  no  man 
of  what  estate  or  condition  that  he  be,  should  be  put  out  of  his  land  or  tene- 
ments, nor  taken,  nor  imprisoned,  nor  disherited,  nor  put  to  dejifh,  without 
being  brought  to  answer  by  due  process  of  law: 


XVIU  APPENDIX   L 

Nevertheless,  against  the  tenor  of  the  said  statutes,  and  other  the  good 
laws  and  statutes  of  your  realm,  to  that  end  provided,  divers  of  your  suhjects 
have  of  late  been  imprisoned  without  any  cause  showed,  and  when  for  their 
deliverance  they  were  brought  before  your  Justices,  by  your  Majesty's  writs 
of  Habeas  Corpus,  there  to  undergo  and  receive  as  the  Court  should  order,  and 
their  keepers  commanded  to  certify  the  causes  of  their  detainer ;  no  cause  was 
certified,  but  that  they  were  detained  by  your  JNIajesty's  special  command, 
signified  by  the  Lords  of  your  Privy  Council,  and  yet  were  returned  back  to 
several  prisons,  without  being  charged  with  anything  to  which  they  might 
make  answer  according  to  the  law : 

And  whereas  of  late  great  companies  of  soldiers  and  mariners  have  been 
dispersed  into  divers  counties  of  the  realm,  and  the  inhabitants  against  their 
wills  have  been  compelled  to  receive  them  into  their  houses,  and  there  to  suffer 
them  to  sojourn,  against  the  laws  and  customs  of  this  realm,  and  to  the  great 
grievance  and  vexation  of  the  people : 

And  lohereas  also  by  authority  of  Parliament,  in  the  five  and  twentieth 
year  of  the  reign  6f  King  Edward  the  Third,  it  is  declared  and  enacted,  that 
no  man  shall  be  forejudged  of  life  or  limb  against  the  form  of  the  Great 
Charter,  and  the  law  of  the  land ;  and  by  the  said  Great  Charter  and  other  the 
laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm,  no  man  ought  to  be  adjudged  to  death, 
but  by  the  laws  established  in  this  your  realm,  either  by  the  customs  of  the 
same  realm  or  by  Acts  of  Parliament:  and  whereas  no  offender  of  what 
kind  soever  is  exempted  from  the  proceedings  to  be  used,  and  punishments  to 
be  inflicted  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm:  nevertheless  of  late 
time  divers  commissions  under  your  Majesty's  Great  Seal  have  issued  forth, 
by  which  certain  persons  have  been  assigned  and  appointed  Commissioners 
with  power  and  authority  to  proceed  within  the  land  according  to  the  justice 
of  martial  law  against  such  soldiers  or  mariners,  or  other  dissolute  persons 
joining  with  them,  as  should  commit  any  murder,  robbery,  felony,  miitiny,  or 
other  outrage  or  misdemeanour  whatsoever,  and  by  such  summary  course  and 
order,  as  is  agreeable  to  martial  law,  and  is  used  in  armies  in  time  of  war,  to 
proceed  to  the  trial  and  condemnation  of  such  offenders,  and  them  to  cause  to 
be  executed  and  put  to  death,  according  to  the  law  martial : 

By  pretext  whereof,  some  of  your  Majesty's  subjects  have  been  by  some 
of  the  said  Commissioners  put  to  death,  when  and  where,  if  by  the  laws 
and  statutes  of  the  land  they  had  deserved  death,  by  the  same  laws  and 
statutes  also  they  might,  and  by  no  other  ought  to  have  been,  judged  and 
executed : 

And  also  sundry  grievous  offenders  by  colour  thereof,  claiming  an  exemp- 
tion, have  escaped  the  punishments  due  to  them  by  the  laws  and  statutes  of 
this  your  realm,  by  reason  that  divers  of  your  officers  and  ministers  of  justice 
have  unjustly  refused,  or  forborne  to  proceed  against  such  offenders  accord- 
ing to  the  same  laws  and  statutes,  upon  pretence  that  the  said  offenders  were 
punishable  only  by  martial  law,  and  by  authority  of  such  commissions  as 
aforesaid,  which  commissions,  and  all  other  of  like  nature,  are  wholly  and 
directly  contrary  to  the  said  laws  and  statutes  of  this  your  realm: 

They  do  therefore  humblij  pray  your  Most  E.rcellpnt  Majesty,  that  no  man 
hereafter   be  compelled  to   make  or  yield  any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax, 


I'KTrnoN  (ii-  i:i(;iir  xix 

or  siifh  like  I'lianjc,  without  foimnoii  consent  by  Art  of  Parliament;  atiil  that 
none  bocalletl  to  make  answer,  or  take  such  oath,  or  to  ;;ive  atteniianii-,  or 
be  contineii,  or  otherwise  inok-sti-d  or  (liscjuieted  eoncernin;;  the  same,  «ir  for 
refusal  thereof;  and  that  no  freeman,  in  any  sueh  manner  as  is  befon-nieii- 
lioneil,  hi- imprisoneil  or  flelained :  and  tliat  your  Majesty  will  he  jdeased  to 
remove  the  said  soldiers  and  mariners,  and  that  your  jieople  may  not  he  so 
liurdeiKMl  in  tinu'  txi  come ;  and  that  the  aforesaid  commissions  for  proi-et-ding 
hy  martial  law,  may  he  revoke<l  and  annulled;  and  that  hereafter  no  eommis- 
sions  of  like  nature  may  issue  forth  to  any  person  or  persons  whatsoevir,  to 
bo  execute<l  as  aforesaitl,  lest  by  eolour  of  them  any  of  your  .Majestys  sub- 
jects be  destroyed  or  put  to  death,  contrary  to  the  laws  ami  franchise  of  the 
land. 

All  which  they  most  humbly  pray  of  your  Most  Excellent  Majesty,  as 
their  rii;hts  and  liberties  a<'cordinL;  to  the  laws  and  statutes  of  this  realm: 
and  that  your  Majesty  wouM  also  vouchsafe  to  declare,  that  the  awards, 
doin;;s,  and  pMceedini;s  to  the  prejudice  of  your  people,  in  any  of  the  pre- 
mises, shall  not  be  drawn  lu-reafier  into  consequence  or  exami)le:  and  that  your 
Majesty  would  be  also  -iraciously  i>leased,  for  the  further  comfort  and  safely 
of  your  peoj)le,  to  fleclare  your  royal  will  ami  pleasure,  that  in  the  things 
aforesaid  all  your  olhccrs  and  ministers  shall  serve  you,  accordin;;  to  the  laws 
and  statutes  of  this  realm,  as  they  tender  the  honour  of  your  Majesty  and  the 
prosperity  of  this  kin;;dcim. 

[On  June  ■_',  the  King  replied  to  the  Commons  as  follows:] 

'"The  King  willeth  that  right  be  done  ai-cording  to  the  laws  and  customs 
of  the  realm;  and  that  the  statutes  be  put  in  due  execution,  that  his  subjects 
may  have  no  cause  to  complain  of  any  wrong  or  oppressions,  contrary  to  their 
just  rights  ami  liberties,  to  the  preservation  whereof  he  holds  himself  as  well 
obliged  as  of  his  pri;rogative." 

[The  Commons  having  shown  their  strong  dissatisfaction  with  this.mswer, 
the  King  in  their  presence  tore  the  wonls  from  the  {)elition,  and  ordered  the 
usual  formula  of  royal  assent  to  be  appended  to  it,  iis  follows: 

"  Soit  droit /(fit  comiiie  il  est  d^sird-"] 


APPENDIX   M 

EXCKiiTTs  FKO>r   I'lri:   iiAr.i:As  roRPUS  act  of 
ciiAKLKs  II.  (k;:'.); 

(For  the  original  text,  see  Hill,  Liberty  Documrnts,  Appendix  C.) 

.\n  .\ct  for  the  better  .sfM-uring  the  Liberty  of  tlie  Subject,  and  for  Pn-ventlon 

of  ImprisonnientH  beyonri  the  Seas. 

M'/irrfU9  great  delays  have  been  use<l  by  sheriffs,  gaolers,  and  other 
officers,  to  v\-hose  cust<«ly  any  of  the  kin^i's  subjects  have  been  committed  for 
criminal  or  supposed  criminal  matters,  in  making  returns  of  writ-s  of  Unbent 
C'or/>»<.»  to  them  direcUil,  .  .  .  whereby  many  of  the  king's  suhject.s  liave  been 


XX  APPENDIX    M 

and  hereafter  may  be  long  detained  in  prison,  in  such  cases  where  by  law  they 
are  bailable,  to  their  great  charges  and  vexation : 

For  the  prevention  whereof,  and  the  more  speedy  relief  of  all  persons 
imprisoned  for  any  such  criminal  or  supposed  criminal  matters,  be  it  enacted 
by  the  King's  most  excellent  Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this  present  Parliament 
assembled,  and  by  the  authority  thereof,  that  whensoever  any  person  or  per- 
sons shall  bring  any  Habeas  Corpus  directed  unto  any  sheriff  or  sheriffs, 
gaoler,  minister,  or  other  person  whatsoever,  for  any  person  in  his  or  their 
custody,  and  the  said  writ  sliall  be  served  upon  the  said  officer,  .  .  .  the  said 
officer  .  .  .  shall  within  three  days  after  the  service  thereof  as  aforesaid  .  .  . 
make  return  of  such  writ ;  and  bring  or  cause  to  be  brought  the  body  of  the 
party  so  committed  or  restrained,  unto  or  before  the  Lord  Chancellor,  or  Lord 
Keeper  of  the  great  seal  of  England  for  the  time  being,  or  the  judges  or  barons 
of  the  said  court  from  whence  the  said  writ  shall  issue  .  .  .  ;  and  shall  then 
likewise  certify  the  true  causes  of  his  detainer  or  imi^risonment. 

******* 

And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  that  if  any  officer 
or  officers  .  .  .  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  make  the  returns  aforesaid,  or  to 
bring  the  body  or  bodies  of  the  prisoner  or  prisoners  according  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  said  writ,  within  the  respective  times  aforesaid,  or  upon  demand 
made  by  the  prisoner  or  person  in  his  behalf  shall  refuse  to  deliver,  or  within 
the  space  of  six  hours  after  demand  shall  not  deliver,  to  the  person  so  demand- 
ing, a  true  copy  of  the  warrant  or  warrants  of  commitment  and  detainer  of 
such  prisoner,  which  he  and  they  are  hereby  required  to  deliver  accordingly; 
all  and  every  the  head  gaolers  and  keepers  of  such  prisons,  and  such  other 
person  in  whose  custody  the  prisoner  shall  be  detained,  shall  for  the  first 
offence,  forfeit  to  the  prisoner  or  party  grieved  the  sum  of  one  hundred 
pounds ;  and  for  the  second  offence  the  sum  of  two  hundred  pounds,  and  shali 
and  is  hereby  made  incapable  to  hold  or  execute  his  said  office.  .  .  . 

And  for  the  prevention  of  unjust  vexation  by  reiterated  commitments 
for  the  same  offence,  be  it  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  that  no  person 
or  persons  which  shall  be  delivered  or  set  at  large  upon  any  Habeas  Corpus 
shall  at  any  time  hereafter  be  again  imprisoned  or  committed  for  the  same 
offence  by  any  person  or  persons  whatsoever,  other  than  by  the  legal  order 
and  process  of  such  court  wherein  he  or  they  shall  be  bound  by  recognizance 
to  appear,  or  other  court  having  jurisdiction  of  the  cause.  .  .  . 

******* 
And  for  preventing  illegal  imprisonments  in  prisons  beyond  the  seas,  he 
it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  that  no  subject  of  this  realm 
that  now  is,  or  hereafter  shall  be,  an  inhabitant  or  resident  of  this  kingdom 
of  England,  dominion  of  Wales,  or  town  of  Bsrwick  upon  Tweed,  shall  or  may 
be  sent  prisoner  into  Scotland,  Ireland,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Tangier,  or  into 
parts,  garrisons,  islands  or  jjlaces  beyond  the  seas,  which  are  or  at  any  time 
hereafter  shall  be  within  or  without  the  dominions  of  his  Majesty,  his  heirs  or 
successors  ;  and  that  every  such  imprisonment  is  hereby  enacted  and  adjudged 
to  be  illegal.  .  .  . 


AITENDIX   N  xxi 

APPENDIX   N 

EXCEIiTTS   FROM   THi:   IJILL   OF   IlIGUTS  (1G89) 
(For  the  cxteiuled  text,  see  Adams  aud  Stephens,  Select  Documents,  no.  2X}.) 

Wfipreas  the  I-ords  Spiritnal  and  Temporal,  an<l  Commons,  assomhlf^l  at 
Westminster,  lawfully,  fully,  and  freely  representinji  all  the  estates  of  the 
|K>ople  of  this  realm,  did,  uikhi  the  thirteenth  day  of  Fehruarj-,  in  the  year  of 
our  Lord  one  th«ius;ind  six  hundred  eighty-eight,  present  untn  their  Majesties, 
then  ealle<l  and  known  hy  the  names  and  style  of  William  and  Mary,  Prince 
and  Prinoess  of  Orange,  heing  present  in  their  proi)er  persons,  a  certain 
declaration  in  writini:,  made  hy  the  said  Lords  and  Commons,  in  the  words 
following  ;  viz:  — 

Wfierenn  (he  lute  King  JuineH  II..  ''//  the  iDmiKtmire  of  ilireme  eril  rnnn»e!lnri>, 
jinlgeK,  and  tnhiisterx  employed  hi/  /liin.  ilii/  enilenriiiir  to  nubrert  and  eJCtirpaU  Uie 
ProttMlnnt  religion,  iiiul  the  lairn  mid  lihertie«  of  this  kingilo)n  :  — 

I.  By  attumiitg  itnd  exerciMing  a  ptncer  of  dixpeuHing  irith  and  sunpending  of 
laits,  and  the  execution  of  lairti,  icithout  consent  of  Parliament. 

3.  By  committing  and  pro»ecuting  diters  worthy  prelate*,  for  humbly  petitioning 
to  be  excused  from  concurring  to  the  mime  aimumed  poicer. 

3.  By  ixgning  and  canning  to  he  executed  a  cominiwion  under  the  Great  Seal  for 
erecUng  a  court,  called  the  Court  of  CominiKHionem  for  Eccleifi<i»tical  Camie*, 

U.  ISy  levying  money  for  and  to  the  UMe  of  the  <?roicn,  hy  pretence  of  prerogntire, 
for  other  time,  and  in  other  manner  than  Vie  name  iraM  granted  hy  Parliament. 

.•>.  By  raining  and  keeping  a  ntanding  army  within  thin  Icimjdom  in  time  of  peace, 
without  conxent  of  Parliament,  and  ijuartering  soMier*  contrary  to  law. 

»>.  By  cauoing  tereral  gotnl  i>ul>}ectM,  heing  Protentantn,  to  he  dixanned,  at  the  same 
time  when  Papintx  irere  both  armed  and  employed  contrary  to  law. 

7.  By  riolating  the  freedom  of  election  of  members  to  serve  in  Parliament. 

8.  By  protecutioiut  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  for  mtitterx  ami  causes  cognisable 
only  in  Parliament;  and  by  diverse  other  arbitrary  and  illegal  courses. 

0.  And  whereas  of  late  years,  partial,  corrupt,  and  um/ualifled  persons  hare 
been  retumeil  and  served  on  juries  in  trials,  and  particularly  diverse  Jurors  in 
trials  for  high  treason,  trhich  were  not  freeholders. 

10.  And  ejrcessive  bail  hath  been  retjuired  of  persons  committed  in  criminal  caaes, 
to  elude  the  benefit  of  the  laws  made  for  the  liberty  of  the  SHb)n-ts. 

It.    And  exceimive  fines  have  been  imjioseil. 

II.  And  Illegal  and  cruet  punishments  In/tlcted. 

IS.  Anil  several  grunts  and  promises  made  of  fines  and  forfeitures,  brfors  any 
conviction  or  judgment  against  the  persons  upon  whom  the  satne  were  to  be  levied. 

All  which  are  utterly  and  directly  contrary  to  the  known  lairs  and  statutes,  and 
freedom  of  this  realm  :  — 

And  irhereas  the  said  late  King  James  IF.  having  ahdicated  the  government, 
and  the  throne  heing  thereby  varant,  his  Ilighmss  tiie  Prinee  of  Orange 
(whom  it  hath  pleast><|  Almighty  (iod  to  make  the  glorious  instrument  of 
delivering  this  kingdom  from  |Mipery  auil  .'irhitrary  power)  did  (hy  the 
advice  of  the  I^)rds  Spiritual  aud  Temporal,  ami  diverse  principal  iiersons  of 
the  Commons)  cause  letters  to  he  written  to  the  Ixirds  Spiritual  and  Temi>oral, 


XXll  APPENDIX   N 

being  Protestants,  and  other  letters  to  the  several  counties,  cities,  universi- 
ties, boroughs,  and  cinque  ports,  for  the  choosing  of  such  persons  to  represeut 
them,  as  were  of  right  to  be  sent  to  Parliament,  to  meet  and  sit  at  West- 
minster upon  the  two-and-tweutieth  day  of  January,  in  this  year  one  thousand 
six  huudred  eighty  and  eight,  iu  order  to  such  an  establishment,  as  that  their 
religiou,  laws  and  liberties  might  uot  again  be  iu  danger  of  being  subverted ; 
upon  which  letters,  elections  have  been  accordingly  made. 

And  thereupon  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  pur- 
suant to  their  respective  letters  and  elections,  being  now  assembled  in  a  full 
and  free  representation  of  this  nation,  taking  into  their  most  serious  consid- 
eration the  best  means  for  attaining  the  ends  aforesaid,  do  in  the  first  place 
(as  their  ancestors  in  like  case  have  usually  done), /or  the  vindicating  and 
asserting  their  ancient  rights  and  liberties,  declare:  — 

1.  That  the  pretended  power  of  suspending  of  laws,  or  the  execution  of 
laws,  by  regal  authority,  without  consent  of  parliament,  is  illegal. 

2.  That  the  pretended  power  of  dispensing  with  laws,  or  the  execution  of  laws 
by  regal  authority,  as  it  hath  been  assumed  and  exercised  of  late,  is  illegal. 

3.  That  the  commission  for  erecting  the  late  Court  of  Commissioners  for 
Ecclesiastical  causes,  and  all  other  commissions  and  courts  of  like  nature, 
are  illegal  Jind  pernicious. 

4.  That  levying  money  for  or  to  the  use  of  the  Crown,  by  pretence  of  pi-e- 
rogative,  without  grant  of  parliament,  for  longer  time  or  in  other  mauner  than 
the  same  is  or  shall  be  granted,  is  illegal. 

5.  That  it  is  the  right  of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  all  commit- 
ments and  prosecutions  for  such  petitioning  are  illegal. 

6.  That  the  raising  or  keeping  a  standing  army  within  the  kingdom  in  time 
of  peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent  of  parliament,  is  against  law. 

7.  That  the  subjects  which  are  Protestants  may  have  arms  for  their  defence 
suitable  to  their  conditions,  and  as  alloM^ed  by  law.  ' 

8.  That  election  of  members  of  parliament  ought  to  be  free. 

9.  That  the  freedom  of  speech,  and  debates  or  proceedings  in  parliament, 
ought  not  to  be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of 
parliament. 

10.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines 
imposed;  nor  cruel  and  unusual  piniishments  inflicted. 

11.  That  jurors  ought  to  be  duly  impanelled  and  returned,  and  juroi'S  which 
pass  upon  men  in  trials  for  high  treason  ought  to  be  freeholders. 

12.  That  all  grants  and  promises  of  fines  and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons 
before  conviction,  are  illegal  and  void. 

13.  And  that  for  redress  of  ail  grievances,  and  for  the  amending,  strength- 
ening, and  preserving  of  the  laws,  parliaments  ought  to  be  held  frequently. 

And  they  do  claim,  demand,  and  insist  upon  all  and  singular  x>remises, 
as  their  undoubted  rights  and  liberties;  and  that  no  declarations,  judgments, 
doings  or  proceedings,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  people  in  any  of  the  said  pre- 
mises, ought  in  any  wise  to  be  drawn  hereafter  into  consequence  or  example :  — 

Noio  in  pursuance  of  the  premises,  the  said  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal, 
anil  Commons,  in  parliament  assembled,  for  the  ratifying,  confirming,  and 
establishing  the  said  declaration  and  the  articles,  clauses,  matters,  and  things 


HIM,  •>!••   Ki(,iiTs  xxiii 

therein  contahifd  bij  the  force  <>/  it  lair  tnn'lf  in  thir  /"nn  Inj  authority  of 
piirliaineiit,  (iD/irai/  that  it  may  bi-  ileclarcd  and  enacted,  Tlisit  all  ami  siii^ilar 
the  rights  and  liberties  Jisserted  and  claimed  in  the  sn'ul  declaratinii,  arc  the 
true,  ancient,  and  indnhitable  rights  anil  liberties  of  the  (jeople  of  this  kingdom, 
and  so  shall  be  esteenieil.  allowed,  adjuilged,  tleeined,  and  taken  to  be;  an<l 
that  all  and  every  the  particulars  aforesaid  shall  be  tirnily  and  strictly  holtleu 
and  observed,  as  they  are  expressed  in  the  said  deilaratiou.  .  .  . 

IX.  And  ir/<('/"KJ.<  it  hath  been  found  by  experience  that  it  is  inconsistent 
with  the  safety  and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  kingdom  to  be  governed  by  a 
I'opish  prince,  or  by  any  king  or  queen  marrying  a  Papist,  the  said  Lonl.* 
Sidrltnal  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  do  further  pro;/  that  it  may  beenacted. 
That  all  and  every  person  and  persons  that  is,  are,  or  shall  be  reconciled  to, 
t>r  shall  liold  communion  with,  the  See  or  Church  of  Rome,  or  sh.ill  profess  tlie 
Popish  religion,  or  shall  marry  a  Papist,  shall  be  excluded,  and  be  forever 
iiuapable  to  inherit,  possess,  or  enjoy  the  Crown  and  government  of  this  realm, 
and  Ireland,  and  the  dominions  thereunto  belonging,  or  any  part  of  the  same, 
or  to  have,  use,  or  exercise  any  regal  p«iwer.  authority,  t>r  jurisdiction  within 
tlie  same:  and  in  all  and  every  such  case  or  cases  the  i)eople  of  these  realms 
shall  be  and  are  hereby  absolved  of  their  allegiaiu-e;  and  the  said  Crown  and 
Government  sh.all  from  time  to  time  descend  to,  and  be  enjoyed  by,  such  |ierson 
or  persons,  being  Protestants,  as  should  have  inherited  and  enjoyed  the  same 
in  case  the  saiii  i>erson  or  persons  so  reconciled,  Indding  communion,  or  pro- 
fessing, or  marrying  as  aforesaid,  were  naturally  dead. 


INDEX 

Diacritic  marks  :  a  as  in  late  ;  a  as  in  fat ;  a  as  in  far ;  &  as  in  last ;  a  as  in  fall ;  €,  ch 
as  in  cask,  chasm  ;  f  as  in  ice ;  e  as  in  me  ;  e  as  in  met,  herry ;  e  as  in  veil ;  e  as  in  term  ; 
g  as  in  gem  ;  g  as  in  gro  ;  i  as  in  ice  ;  i  as  in  tin ;  i  as  in  police  ;  k,  German  ch  ;  n,  the 
French  nasal :  6  as  in  note ;  6  as  in  not ;  6  as  in  son ;  6  as  in  /o/- ;  <_>  as  in  do  \  o  as  in  wolf; 
g  as  in  news ;  fh  as  in  the  ;  ii  as  in  tune  ;  u  as  in  nut ;  h  as  in  rude  (=  o) ;  u  as  in  full ; 
u=  French  u ;  y  as  in  my ;  y  as  in  ^ac/y.    Single  italic  letters  are  silent. 


Abbeys  founded,  71,  120. 
Abbots,  110,  118,  119,  198. 
Aberdeen',  Lord,  503. 
Abhorrers,  374. 
A-bo!i-kir'  Bay,  battle  of,  458. 
Absentee  landlordism,  494. 
Absenteeism  of  churchmen,  203. 
Absolutism,  of  George  III.,  427. 

of  Henry  VIII.,  258,  259. 
Act  of  An'nates,  255. 
Act  of  Indemnity,  419. 
Act  of  Security,  406. 
Act  of  Settlement,  893,  395,  540. 
Act  of  Sufiremacy,  255,  xv. 
Act  of  Supremacy  and  Allegiance,  887. 
Act  of  Uniformity,  274,  358,  xvi. 
Acts  of  Suppression,  257. 
Addison,  Joseph,  409. 
Addled  Parliament,  304. 
Advow'son,  111. 
Af-g/ian-is-tan',  500,  515,  517. 
Africa,  359,  403,  501,  502,  517-519. 
Agincourt  (ii-zhiiN-koor' ),  222. 
Agrarian  troubles,  231. 
Agric'ola,  28. 
Agriculture,  212,  294,  442. 
Aix-la-^ha-peUe',  treaty  of,  418. 
Alabama,  510. 
Al'aric,  33. 

Al'be-marle,  Duke  of,  857,  361. 
Albert,  Prince,  of  Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tAa,  4S5, 

486". 
Alexandria,  bombardment  of,  518. 
Alfred,  King,  57,  6S-70. 
Al-gierg',  pirates  of,  347. 
Alienation  fee,  103. 
AZn'wick  Castle,  196. 
Alva,  Duke  of,  279. 
America,  Colonial  wars  in,  391,  417,  418. 

discoveries  in,  252. 

English  colonies  in,  313,  359,  361,  403,  410. 

See  also  United  States. 


American  Eevolution,  429-435. 
Am7ierst,  General,  422. 
Amiens  (ii-me-aN*),  treaties  of,  166,  459. 
Anabaptists;  339. 
An-der'i-da,  43. 
A  n  'dred  s- we«  Id ,  41 . 
Angles,  invasions  of,  12,  42. 
Anglican  Church,  Henry  VIII.  supreme  head 
of,  255,  256. 

in  Ireland,  489. 

in  Scotland,  361,  362. 

strength  of,  276. 

transformation  of,  206,  267. 

tyranny  of,  3.58. 

Wesley's  religious  revival,  451.     See  also 
Church. 
Ayiglo-Saxun  0 hronicle,  36,  62,  69>  120. 
Anglo-Saxons,  against  Danes,  65-77. 

against  Normans,  80-91. 

civilization  of,  55. 

conquest  of  Britain,  43. 

conversion  of,  45-47. 

homes  of,  37. 

religion  of,  38. 
Anjou  (uN-zhoo'),  70,  128,  157. 
Anjoii,  Count  of,  121. 
Anne,  Queen,  396,  400-407. 

as  princess,  380,  386,  387,  395. 
An'selm,  Archbishop,  116,  117,  119. 
Anson,  Admiral,  416,  417. 
Anti-Corn-Law  League,  491,492. 
Aqnitaine',  128,  189,  194. 
A-rii'M  Pa-sha',  518. 
Ar'agon,  Ferdinand  of,  249. 
Arca'dia,  289. 
Areh-an'gel,  295. 
Archbishops,  110,  116,  157, 
Architecture,  148,  149,  248,  292,  293. 
Ar-gyle',  F.ari  of,  3 IS. 
A-ri-Os'to,  292. 

Aristocracy,  growth  of,  72,  180. 
Arkwright,  Sir  Kichard,  443. 


INDEX 


Arlington,  Bennett,  Earl  of,  8(VJ. 
Aniiu'da.  Spa(il.>li,  i?i-..'>4. 
AriiH-U  Noutrallty,  iS.%  4>V>. 
Ann.H,  io,  116,  ly.',  ISW,  IIW,  Wfi,  SVi. 
Aruiy,  Alfred'*,  t>>,  69. 

Charles  11. 's,  866. 

Cruuiwill'.*,  8:UM«4. 

ll.iiry  ll.'s,  ia«',  ISl. 

rill  re-irjraiiizi-*,  Vii. 
ArnuU,  Matthew,  :iVi. 
Arthur,  bilr  of  Uichard  I.,  15C,  157. 
Arthur,  Klnp.  4.S. 

Arthur,  .'(on  of  Henry  VII.,  349,  254. 
Articles  of  Doctrine,  267. 

Arti-sts.  44y,  :m. 

Ar'undel,  Earl  of,  195, 
Ashbourne  Act,  524. 
A^^hley,  Lord.  861,  862,364. 
A-siin'to,  41)5. 
As!*r,  62. 

.\s-san'dun,  battle  of,  72. 
A»-s»/yf',  475 
.V*size  of  .\riiis,  l:il. 
.\»sUe  of  Clarendon.  132. 
.\«.socUtion  of  the  Eastern  Counties,  327. 
As'trolabe,  245. 

A.*tronomical  Observatory,  Koyal,  307. 
Ath'el-ney,  6-*. 
Ath'el-stan.  Kinp,  70. 
Attainder,  bill  of,  -'U. 
Auckland,  Lord,  .VW. 
Au'er-stiM/t  (ou'-),  402. 
Augustan  Ape  of  Literature,  4(.l9,  410. 
Au'gustlne,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  45. 
Aus'terllU.  462. 
Austin  Friars,  152. 
Australia.  4.SS,  41»'^.  499,  543. 
Austria,  alliance  with  Cin-al  Britain,  395,  390, 
414,  417,  4.'«6.  4fiO. 

NaiK.leon  and.  461-164. 

line  of  I'entnrchv.  46<i. 

~  -.'inn  dls|.nt.',  .■?03. 

,\,.  .iid-,  4.'.fi. 

An  ~  -ii.n,  War  of  the.  417. 

Aulliiim,  «rr  Literature. 
Ar«''bury,  21. 

Bah'Inpton.  Anthony.  SSL 

Hncn.  PVancls.  29«.  3m,  305. 

llacon.  Roeer,  202. 

Biltkir.  IJike.  .Vi9. 

H:.  ■   ■  '   '  -v«teni,  103,  105. 

It.-  r,l.  4;<. 

H . 

Balitnce  of  i-ower.  •i:A.  893,  397,  405. 

Bii'll  ol.  E«lward.  W-h. 

Ballol,  .John,  founds  Ball..l  Colleifr,  201. 

Ballol,  Klni:  John.  172. 

Balks,  74. 

Ball,  .I..hn,  210.  iU. 


Bank  of  Encland,  391.  :»2.  47L 
Bau'nockburn,  1S6,  419. 
Barbu'dos,  4«3. 
Barebone's  Parliament,  34,'>. 
Bar'net,  battle  of,  237. 
Barons,  defense  of  liberty  by,  l.'>6-107. 
duties  and  powers  of,  90,  97. 
Edward  I.'s  strujrple  with.  179. 
Edward  ll.'s  trouble>  with,  \<>. 
Henry  I.  and.  13o,  131. 
Henry  111..-,  strupu-le  with,  10.V167 
Henry  Vll.  attacks  power  of,  -i'lO. 
John's  conllict  with,  l.'«9-162. 
retainers  of,  2ol. 
tenants  of,  102,  103. 
"  Barrows,"  '20. 
Base  tenure,  103. 
Bath,  42,  327. 

Battle  of  the  Standard,  123. 
Bavaria.  402.  417. 
Ba-you;i#',  225. 
Beachy  Head,  battle  of,  390. 
Bia'eonslield.  Lord,  «#«<  Disraeli. 
Bfdu'fort,  Cardinal  Henry,  •2'24,  '225,  230. 
Beaufort.  Marparet.  237. 
Beau-vui*    (bo-),  Bishop  i)^  224. 
Becket,  Thomas  a,  134,  Vib. 
Be<le  of  Jarrow,  62. 

Bedfonl,  John  Plantairenet,  Duke  of,2'23,  2i5. 
Bedfonl,  John  Uussell,  Duke  of,  429. 
Bepplnp  Krlars,  152. 
Ben  Ne'vis.  16. 
Ben'e-flce,  109. 
Bepefit  of  derpy,  258. 
Benevolences,  'iSS,  251,  307. 
Benpal',  conquest  of,  424. 
Bon'lAam.  Jeremy,  45tt. 
Be'rlng  Sea  controversy,  52,'5. 
Berlin,  treaty  of,  515. 
Beriin  Decree,  462. 
Bernicia  il)er-ni>h'i-a'),  42,  4->. 
Bertha,  wife  of  ElhelUrt.  4.'). 
Ber'irick  on  T»e.-<l.  171,  l>>9. 
Bible.  Henry  VII  I.  and.  '257. 

tninslatlons  of.  2i>4.  '.Vi,  3o2. 
BUI  of  Ulphts,  8>.7,  as'*,  510,  54S.  xxL 
Bills,  passage  of,  .'►12. 
Bl'.h"p>.  courts.  112. 
el.-«tlon  of.  110.  119,  2.-.<5. 
Investlturi-  of,  \\>,  119. 
seats  In  IIoum-  of  l-«>rtls,  restored,  SM^ 
s«H>sof.  10t>,  II". 
Bishops'  War.  :U2.  320. 
Black  m-atb.  191.  ■-'"'.  2W. 
Black  Holeof<:il,.iti».  424. 
Bl.iok  PriiH-e,  1'.i:l.  194. 
Black  Se.i,  497,  :*<-i.  :><«. 
Blake,  Admiral,  H4.S,  347. 
Blen'A«'lin.  tattle  of.  Vri. 
Bl9<m'font*fn  Convention,  hfi. 


XXVI 


INDEX 


Bloody  Assize,  377. 

Bloody  Statute,  258. 

Blii'cher  (-Ker),  Marshal,  466. 

Bo-a-di-fea,  2T. 

Board  of  Trade,  431,  541. 

Boers,  501,  502,  517,  526-52S. 

Bol'eyn,  Anne,  254,  255,  2.58. 

BcMMiifZ-hroke,  Lord,  404,  400-40S,  415. 

Bom-bay'.  423. 

Bona-partf,  Mapoleon,  45T-46T. 

Bon'i-face  VIII.,  Pope,  17S. 

Bor-deaiix'  (-do'),  225. 

Boroiighbridse,  battle  of,  187. 

Boroughs,  58,  59,  145,  428. 

pocket,  428,  435. 

rotten,  435,  484. 
Bos'phorus,  503. 
Bog' well,  James,  449. 
Bog'worth  Field,  240. 
Botany  Bay,  439. 
Bothwell,  Earl  of,  278. 
Bo?;-lr);/n^'  armament,  4G0. 
Bo«r'bon,  Duke  of,  222. 
Bourbon  monarehs,  455,  450. 
Bojt-vineA',  1.51). 
Bo.\ers,  5:31,  532. 
Boycotting-,  519. 
Boyne,  battle  of  the,  388,  389. 
Br.addock,  General,  420. 
Bie-dii',  Declaration  of,  351. 

treaty  of,  360. 
Bretigny  (bre-tC-n-yi"),  treaty  of,  194. 
Bret'walda,  4G. 
Bright,  John,  492. 
Bristol,  parliamentary  army  defeated,  32T. 

West  Saxons  acquire,  42. 
Britain,  13;  confjuests  of,  11-92. 
Britons,  21,  22,  42,  48. 
Brittany,  150,  191. 
Bronze  Age,  20. 
Browning,  Robert,  532. 
Bruce,  David,  188,  198,  1S9. 
Bruce.  Robert,  172,  175,  185^188. 
Bru'geg,  149,  212,  279. 
Bru'nan-burh  (-boorK),  70. 
Brunswick,  360. 
Bry'thons,  21. 
Buck'ing-/iani,  Edward  Stafford,  Duke  of, 

239,  240. 
Buckingh.am,  George  Villiers,  Duke  of,  304- 

308. 
Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  Duke  of,  362. 
Bulga'ria,  514,  515. 
Buller,  General,  528. 
Bunyan,  John,  367. 
Burgesses,  162,  181. 
Burgh,  Hubert  de,  163. 
Bur-goyne',  General,  433. 
Bur'gundy,  238,  250. 
Burgundy,  Duke  of,  220-222,  230,  237. 


Burke.  Edmund,  Indian  government,  487 

on  colonial  question,  431,  432. 

on  French  Revolution,  455. 

political  reforms  agitated  by,  435,  472. 

Tory  |)arty  led  by,  456. 
Burne-Jones,  Sir  Edward,  533. 
Burns,  Robert,  476. 
Bury  (ber'i)  St.  Edmunds,  159. 
Bute,  Earl  of,  424,  429. 
Butler,  Samuel,  366. 
By-elections,  540. 
Byron,  Lord,  477. 

Cabiil'  ministry,  362,  363,  365. 
Cabinet,  357,  408,  506,  540-542. 
Cab'ot,  John,  251,  252. 
Cade,  Jack,  231. 
Ca'diz,  282,  306,  460,  461. 
Uadwal'lon,  47,  48. 
Caed'mon,  62. 
C;i(ir-10'ou,  29,  31. 
Cwe'jar,  Julius,  22,  25. 
daius  (kOz)  College,  293. 
Ca-la«'«',  a  staple  town,  214. 

English  possession,  193,  194,  225,  268. 
Calcut'ta,  423,  424. 
Calder,  Sir  Robert,  461. 
Calendar,  ch.ange  in,  447. 
Calvin,  John,  274,  275. 
Cam 'bridge,  202,  2S9,  514. 
Cam'perdown,  battle  of,  457. 
Camulodn'nuin,  27,  31. 
Canada,  42U-422,  424,  498,  &43. 
Canals,  445. 

Canning,  George,  463,  482,  497,  498. 
Canons,  110. 
Canterbury,  45,  66. 

Archbishop  of,  110,  116. 

Cathedral,  148,  149. 
Canterhvry  Tales,  206. 
Canton',  .507. 
Ca-nute',  King,  72,  75,  76. 
Cape  Rret'on  Island,  42.5. 
Cape  Colony,  4,57,  466,  501,  502,  528,  543. 
Ciir'is-brooke  Castle,  333,  334. 
Car-lT.<tle',  school  at,  153. 
Car-lylf ',  Thomas,  532. 
Car'mel-Ites,  152. 
Car-nar'v6n  Castle,  172. 
Car-nat'ic.  423,  424. 
Caroline  of  Ans'pach  (-paK),  415. 
Carr,  Robert,  304. 
Car-tha-gO'na,  282. 
Oartwright,  Thomas,  448. 
Cas,-t\e-rea.gh' ,  Lord,  497. 
Castles,  89^  90,  102,  123,  130. 
Castra,  27,  29. 
Cathedral  church,  109,  110. 
Catherine,  wife  of  Henry  V.,  223,  228. 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  249,  254. 


INOKX 


XX  Ml 


Catholic  Assoctatlon,  4S<. 
Ciitholio,*.  adinittfd  t"  army  and  navy,  4" 
anil  Protestants,  distinction  Utweeu, 

and  l;fforniation.  2&1. 

i-.«nto>l  with,  'il'',  "iTti. 

financi|iatii>n,  4>4. 

excluded  from  throne,  :}>$. 

Georsre  III.  rrfus«-s  |H)litical  rights  to, 

Gordon  riots,  4-Sti. 

in  Inland.  ^41,  4;:<. 

in  Mary's  rvitrn.  •-'CT-JTO. 

in  Scolhind,  "itJo. 

laws  a^inst,  3as. 

Louis  XIV.  champion  of.  :{•►?. 

Mary,  Quet-n  oI*Srot>.  aidwl  t>y,  27^. 

Uoiiian  CatholiciMU.  -'41'. 

Thirty  Years'  War.  .*>.'>. 

under  .lames  II..  ■i".  37">. 
t.'ava-liOr'  Parliament,  373. 
Cavaliers,  -Vl'. 

Cav'endish,  Lonl  Frederick,  519. 
Cawn-pijr',  itib,  '**6. 
Ca.xton.  William.  -.Ml.  24J. 
t.'Ov'il.  Kobert  ^Karl  of  Salisbnry>,  302,  3 
Cecil.  William  (L..nl  Hurlelgh),  273. 
Cel'es-tin*,  Pojie.  44. 
Celibacy  of  clervy,  71,  '.'OC.  811. 
Celtic  Church.  44,  4.'>.  4"*-5<». 
C«lts,  ll,21,3«;. 
•tV'orls,  3s.  74. 
Cer'dic,  41. 
Cet-a-wi'yo,  M". 
t  lialtTove.  327. 

i  hiim'ber-Kiln.  .I.>*ei.h.  .'.2:^,  M",  525,  M7 
Chancellor,  lol.  17r..  W.i. 
Clianderna»,'ar  (i-hun'der-nriL''er),  4-.'4. 
Channel  I.^lands,  157. 
Cha|iinan,  Georpe.  292. 
Chajiter  and  dean  ofCatlH-dral,  tlo. 
(,'har'lf-mai/nc,  .M.  .VJ. 
Charles  I..  *»0-:«7. 
Charles  II..  851-;<76. 
and  Scotland,  8«>1,  862. 
a.*  i.rince.  *tl.  :U2.  :«1. 
Charles  V..  Km|.er..r.  2.'>3.  2C7,  2ft*. 
Charles  IV.,  Klnir  of  Krance,  1*9.  190. 
Charles  V..  KIntr  of  Kran.-e.  im. 
Charles  VI.,  Kine  of  Krance.  2'2ll. 
Charles  Vlf..  Klni:  of  Kninr.-,  22:5,  2-24. 
Chnrl.-s  II..  KInirof  S|.aln.  :«•:(.  394. 
Charlts  (VI.)  of  .\ll^trla,  4"l.  M*.\  417. 
Charles  .lamos  I-:<lwanl  Stuart.  419. 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Uunfundy,  279. 
Charles  the  Slmi.lc.  Kini.'.  78.  77. 
Chartert-d  towns,  ris.-  of.  ]iii.  1+4. 
Charters,    constitutional,    117,   16it-lfi'2, 

Ix-xv. 
Charters  to  mercantile  com|>nnles.  2.'i<i. 
Chartist  nform.  I'.Hi. 


Chiit'/iaiii,  Earl  of,  »e/  Pitt. 

I'haucer.  Cieotlrey,  2l>.V2«)S>,  242. 

»,lu"r'l«'Ur)r,  390. 

Chester.  57  ;  i-aptured,  48,  88. 

Chr'vl-ot  mils.  If.. 

Chich'ester,  Bishop  of,  166. 

Children,  employment  of,  471,  4S'3. 

Chil'tern  Hundreds,  540. 

China,  Boxer  outbreak  in,  531,  ,^12. 

trade  with,  529. 

wars  with.  499,  5<X),  507. 
l'hip'//en/iam,  6S. 

»,'hivalry.  trend  of  feuilalism  towani,  2t'»S. 
Christianity,  introduction  of,  32.  44.  4.%.  52. 
I'hun-h.  and  state  in  feudal  .system,  110-112. 

and  state  in  Henry  II.'s  reiifn.  I*'?-136. 

and  state  in  Henry  Vlll.'s  reign,  254». 

and  state,  union  of,  52. 

.Vnglo-Saxon  conversion  to,  47. 

Celtic,  44,  4.\  4^Vl. 

Constantine's  influence  on  spread  of,  32. 

Cromwell's  toleration,  346,  847. 

Kdward    VI.'s  attitude  towani.  2t'>4. 

Klizabeth's  attitude  toward,  273,  274,  276. 

feudiilized.  1119-112. 

Henry  VIII.  and.  255-25S. 

in  Ireland.  4>9.  512. 

investiture,  .lis.  119. 

.lames  I.'s  attitude  towani.  302. 

.lauifs  II.'s  Declaration  of  Indulgence, 378. 

.John's  struggle  with.  l.'17-l.VJ. 

Ijiud's  tyranny  over.  3lo.  311. 

Lollanls'  movement  in.  2<i:<.  240. 

Long  P.'irliament  and.  31'— :J2U. 

Mary  Tudor's  attitude  towani.  269. 

monasteries  suppre>.M-<l.  2.')7.  "iSs. 

monasticism.  growth  of,  1'2U. 

new  moral  c<Mle,  61. 

organized  In  Englancl,  .'><•. 

Prayer  Bot.k.  266.  26>,  274.  i}.'»S. 

Quakers.  361. 

Keforniatlon.  247.  'JW.  2.'>6,  264,  267,  276. 

removal  of  relit'lous  disabilities,  4«. 

Kcnals.iancr'  liitluence  on,  24s. 

Tithe  and  Commutation  Act,  4^7. 

Tolenitlon  Act.  3*7. 

transfi>rmation  of  Anglican,  266,  267. 

tyranny  of  Anglican,  35*. 

Wesley's  religious  revival,  451. 

WvcUrs  Intluence  on.  2iW  'iO.V 

Stf    .//««    Pop'.    <  Itl-.v.    C:itlioll<-..    Kpls- 
copacv.  Prf>l'yti  riaiilsm.  Protc-tantlsm, 
etc. 
Church  lands.  269,  •■C<.\ 
rhui   '  "     '   '       (l>'"ke    of   Marllxirougli), 

lol-4o». 
Cln-  :.  176. 

Cir.i,..  -i.  1  (.i.-.-.  t.T).  42. 
riHt.r  clan  (shnn)  monks,  120,  121. 
Cities,  143  146,  4s7. 


WAI.KKK 


km; 


.35 


XXVIU 


INDEX 


Civil  law,  ofclmrch,  110,  111. 

Civil  list,  3S7. 

Civil  service,  512,  543. 

Civil  War  in  England,  325-837. 

Civilization,  Anslo-Saxon,  55. 

pre-Uomaii,  in  Britain,  22,  23. 
ClarcMioc,  23(),  237. 

CUir'cn-don,  Constitutions  of,  133-135,  x. 
Clarendon,  Earl  of,  357,  361,  3G2. 
Classes,  in  Anplo-Saxon  society,  50,  57. 

in  Teutonic  society,  38. 
Clau'di-us,  Emperor,  27. 
Clu'verZ/owse,  GraLam  of,  3S9. 
Clement  VII.,  Pope,  254,  255. 
Clergy,  in  Parliament,  181,  198. 
marriagre  of,  forbidden,  311. 
marriage  of,  permitted,  266. 
revolt  against  Act  of  Uniformity,  3.58. 
taxation  of,  178,  179. 
Cler'i-cU  Ld'i-cdn,  178. 
Clerks,  133. 

Cleveland,  President,  525. 
Clitford.  Sir  Thomas,  862,  365. 
Climate,  18. 
Clive.  Robert,  424,  446. 
Cloth  manufacturing,  212,  443. 
Club,  the,  449. 
Coats  of  arms,  208. 
Cobden,  Richard,  49. 
Co'i-fi,  47. 
Coinage,  English,  122,  290,  392. 

of  Britons,  22,  28. 

under  Romans,  81. 
Col'chester,  27,  334. 
Colc'ridge,  Samuel,  476. 
Col'et,  Dean,  288. 
Colleges,  gee  Education. 
Crd'man,  Bishop,  49. 
Colonies,  Dutch,  296,  859,  801. 

English,  296,  297,  813,  814,  359,  301,  403, 
405,  416,  420,  429,  498 ;  government  of, 
542,  543.     See  Africa,  Australia,  India. 

French,  420,  423,  424,  457. 

Spanish,  281,  861,  497. 
(lolumba.  Saint,  45. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  251. 
Co'mes  Li'toris  Saxon' ici,  88. 
Commerce,  colonial,  408,  416,  429^32. 

development  of,  under  Canute,  75 ;  under 
Normans,  146,  147. 

fifteenth  century,  241. 

fourteenth  century,  212-214. 

growth  of  trade  with  Europe,  295. 

guilds  influence,  149-151. 

Henry  VII.  encourages,  250,  251. 

Napoleon's  commercial  war  against  Eng- 
land, 462,  403. 

open  door  i)olicy,  529,  530. 

railroads,  etc.,-  stimulate,  489. 

P>ule  of  1756,  457. 


Commerce,  taxation  of  imports  and  exports, 
177. 
trade  privileges  witli  United  States,  483. 
treaties  of,  405. 
twentieth  century,  546. 

under  West  Saxons,  71. 
with  East,  296,  359,  423,  .529,  530. 
Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,  328. 
('ciuimon  law,  60,  100. 
Common  Pleas,  Court  of,  176. 
Commons,  180;  nee  House  of  Commons. 
Commonwealth,  342-345. 
Com  'pur-ga-tors,  00. 
Conciliation  Bill,  4:^3. 
<\)iifinna'iio  Caria'rtnn,  179,  xiii. 
Con'nau(//(.t,  341. 
Conservatives,  486. 
(Conservators  of  the  peace,  176,  210. 
Con'stan-tine,  32. 

Constantinople,  Russia  (ovets,  497,  503. 
Constan'tius  (-shi-us),  33. 
Constitution,  England's  unwritten,  f4s. 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  133-135,  x. 
Consular  service,  543. 
Continental  System,  Napoleon's,  462-404 
Con-ven'ti-cle  Act,  858. 
Conventicles,  274,  8.58,  362. 
Convention  Parliaments,  850,  351,  355,  356 

881,  886,  387. 
Convicts,  438,  4-39,  4SS,  498,  499. 
Convocation,  110,  198,  267. 
Cook,  Captain  .James,  438. 
Cooke,  Sir  William  F.,  489. 
Copenha'gen,  459. 
Copyhold,  355.  , 

Corn  Laws,  482,  491-493. 
Cornwall,  51,  88. 
Corn-wal'lis,  Lord,  483,  4.34. 
C!orporation  Act,  358,  483. 
C!()-run'na,  282. 
Cot-set'las,  105. 
Cots'wold  Hills,  17. 
Cotte-har'die,  213. 
Council,  Great,  110,  130,  181. 
Council,  King's,  nee  King's  Council. 
Council,  Privy,  259,  361.  540. 
Council  of  State,  842,  345. 
Councils,  county,  524. 
(N)unt  of  the  Saxon  Coast,  83. 
("ounties,  administration  of,  524. 

in  William  I.'s  reign,  100. 
Coin-t.  of  Chancery,  170. 

of  Common  Pleas,  176. 

of  Ecclesiastical  Commission,  377. 

of  Exchequer,  118,  131,  175.  176. 

of  High  Commission,  270,  318,  877 

of  King's  Bench,  181,  176,  379. 

of  Star  Chamber,  309,  3is. 
Courts,  bishops',  112. 

circuit,  131,  170. 


INDKX 


XXIX 


Courts,  eoolesla»tlo«I,  133. 

iimiiurlitl,  li't. 
t  ..Mtmnt,  i".  Sll.  :WS  .'Ml,  S.V5. 
lov'i-iiaiilcrs,  ill  Sf.illiiiitl,  •!",  -W,  :*fri. 
(  "v'l'hlrv,  :v.',V 
«  .-.v'lnlal.'.  Mill's,  --It-i. 
t  niniiUT,  Tliiiiiias,  Arolibishoii.  2.V>,  •Jt'kVJt 

«  IV.V  (oniM:- ),  luittif  <>r,  iyo-19,1. 

t  ri  iiu-  an  War,  !*si.  .'"tH. 

triiues  Acts.  ,M'.t.  .V.'4. 

C'rimiiml   law,  fxi,  71,  HK»,  IH,  !*»,  ITrt,  4- 

4"N-^;  *«•<?  Convict*. 
Cr.. Iters,  .VJ:<. 
«'riini|iton,  Samiu-I,  4+"i. 
l.r..in\vi-Il,  Oliver,  3-.'7-im,  339-.'W0. 
(."roiiiNVell,  UlcliarJ,  'M'J. 
Cn>ui»ell,  Thomas,  i's"),  257. 
Crown  land.*,  I'i'J.  130;  ««■  Doiiu'sne. 
Criisa«le.s,  intliience  on  city  life,  14">.  14'.». 

Kichanl  I.  joins,  130,  137. 
CuLa,  423,  424. 
Cul-16.ren,  battle  of,  419. 
Cu-nard'  Steamship  Company,  540. 
Cu'ri-a  Ke'tfis,  liil,  11-.,  1:{1,  17.');  gee  Kini 

Council. 
Currency,  reforms  in,  296.  297,  392. 
Customs  and  niatiners.  xrc'  Life. 
Cy'prus  ac<juired,  i>lh. 

DalVvrnple  of  Stair,  3f9. 

Danbv,  l-:url  of.  371,  373,  375.  3S0. 

Oanr't'eld.  71,  101,  Ioh,  lU.  177. 

Danf 'Uiw.  7.'>. 

Danes,  invasion  and  rule  of,  6.V7". 

Dan'te.  3+"'. 

I)ar-<la-nel/<-j'.  '*Ki.  :m. 

Darnley,  Lonl.  27s.  id. 

Darwin,  Charles  Kol^rt.  r>32. 

Dau'phin,  22it. 

Dav'ltt.  .Michael.  .V20. 

/>»•  llitrtt'ico  Comburen'do,  219. 

Dean  anil  chapter  of  cathiHlral,  110. 

Debt,  national.  3ir.'.  414.  471. 

D.rlar.al..n  of  Indulgence,  301.  365,  87S 

Decl-Hrati.in  of  Kifht.s.  *>6,  3S7. 

De-f.M-'.  Daniel.  4<>U.  44^. 

Dr  lirasv.^',  Adndral.  4-3.},  4.34. 

Dc'i-ra.  42.  4s. 

Del'Ai,  475,641.',,  .'>(lC. 

De-me^n."'.  .v..  inrt. 

Denmark,  alllancu  with  r>utch,  SCO. 

ari.i.  •  ■.  i.f.  4W. 

coi  V  with,  250. 

II. .  • 
De-orliani.  Utile  of,  42,  43. 
Der'by  (dar*-),   Fldwanl  Stanley,  Li>rd,  510, 

.MI. 
Derbv.  Henrv,  Karl  of.  I9.\  196 
De  i:'«y"ter,  Michael  A..  :V4:t.  :»'*<. 
Der' went  water,  Earl  of.  4os. 


Desmonds,  2.'0.  27C. 

Despen'scr,  Hugh,  IS7. 

Det'ting-en,  417. 

De-vi'zej,  3'J7. 

D.vonshin",  William  Cavendish,  Dukeof.  3>rt. 

I  >i  voiishire,  William  »  avendisli.  Duke  of,  4-.'J. 

De  Witt  (vit'l.  tornelius  and  .Ian,  396. 

Dickens,  Charles,  Mi. 

I  >i):iL,'s,  Sir  Dudley,  .307. 

l)ii>ce.ses,  109. 

Di-o-cle'tian  (-shan),  31. 

Diplomatic  service,  543. 

Dispensing  power,  king's  right  to,  375,  3T9. 

Dij-raf'll,  Benjamin,  ."ill-Sir). 

Dissenters,  27.">. 

Divine  right  theory,  300.  :30:?. 

D.jnifj'day  Book.  9<. 

Domln'ican  Friars.  1.V2. 

Domremy  (dos-nume"),  22:?. 

DoH-uy',  27.5. 

Do  ver,  treaty  of,  363.  .3(U.  372. 

Downs,  battle  of  the,  .360. 

Drake.  Sir  Francis.  2S1.  2*2,  2*5. 

Drama,  2".li>--2!»2.  366,  4.VI. 

Dress,  212,  21.3.  26li.  411. 

Droghe<la  (droKe-da),  339. 

Druid.s,  22. 

Dry 'den,  John,  366,  44S. 

Dudley,  Sir  Edmund,  2.'>0. 

Dudley,  Lonl  <;uilford.  207. 

Dunbar',  battles  of.  174,  342. 

Duncan,  Ailmiral,  4.'>7. 

Dunkirk,  :H7,  W>. 

Dunstan.  Archbislmp.  70,  71. 

Du-quesne'  (-kun'l.  Fort,  422. 

Dur'/iam,  99,  313. 

Dutch,  and  William  III..  392.  .393 
cohinies  of,  296,  3.V.».  361. 
In  Cape  Colony.  .Vis. 
trade  rebitlons  with,  .371,  4Sl. 
.s'rc  iilmi  Holland. 

Duti-h  East  India  Company,  290. 

DuKli  West  India  ComiMiny,  3.'i». 

//Mjr  liritiiiiuiii'riiiii,  46. 

Efll'donuen,  .3S.  6T. 

Earldoms.  122,  130. 

Earls,  71. 

East  Anglla.  4",  «<'•.  >'•'.  To,  T5. 

Fji.»t  In.lia  Company.  296.  36.'.,  424.  437,  *{•<, 

V-i*Urn  question.  497.  4''«    .'nr.'  .•-•!    .M4.  .'.15. 

E-b«'>r'a-cuni,  2'.*. 

Edgar.  Kini;,  .'>7.  71. 

Edgar  the  Ktheling.  s2.  '7,  ** 

Mg^'hill.  battle  of.  HiC. 

Ed'ln-burgh  (  bi'ir-oi,  foundwl.  47. 

captuml.  174.  JMl.  312.  419. 
Ivlniund,  King.  66. 
Edmund  InmsMe,  72. 


XXX 


INDEX 


Education,  Alfred  fosters,  70. 

earl}'  colleges  and  universities,  201,  2(12. 

in  fourteenth  century,  153,  154. 

new  learning,  2S9.  ■ 

reforms  in,  514. 

state  aid  to,  4SS. 

Wyndham  Education  Act,  533,  534. 
Edward,  king  of  Anglo-Saxons,  57,  70. 
Edward,  the  Confessor,  76,  S0-S2. 
Edward  I.,  171-1S2. 
Edward  II..  King,  1S5-1S8. 

as  Prince  of  Wales,  172. 
Edward  III.,  King,  lSS-195,  208,  210. 

as  prince,  166,  167. 
Edward  IV.,  23.5-23S. 
Edward  V.,  23S,  239. 
Edward  VI.,  258,  260,  264-267. 
Edward  VII.,  533. 
Edward  of  Lancaster,  232,  230,  237. 
Edwin,  Earl,  85,  87,  88. 
Edwin.  King,  47,  48. 
Egbert,  King,  51,  56. 
Egfrith,  King,  50. 
Egyjit.  458,  500,  518,  519. 
ZTi'kon  Ba-sil'i-ke,  34;3. 
Elba,  459,  405. 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  128. 
Eleanor  of  Provence,  163. 
Electric  telegraph,  489. 
El'i-ot,  George,  532. 
Eliot,  Sir  John,  307,  308,  309. 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  238.  249. 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I.,  305,  370. 
Elizabeth,  Queen,  258,  272-286. 
Eliz'abethan  Age,  289-292. 
Emma  of  Normandy,  72,  76. 
Emmet,  Robert,  475. 
Empson,  Sir  Richard,  250. 
England,  defined,  13. 
English  Church,  fee  Church. 
English  nation,  beginning  of,  51. 
Enniskil'len,  siege  of,  388. 
Entailed  estates,  177. 
E'orls,  38,  57,  71. 
E-pis'co-pa-cy,  attempt  to  abolish,  321,  322. 

reestablishment  of,  in  Scotland,  361. 

Scottish  revolt  against,  312. 

struggle  with  Presbyterianism,  275. 
Era§'mus,  288. 
Esse.v,  42,  47,  50,  70. 
Essex,  commander  in  civil  war,  325-830. 
Essex,  Earl  of,  285,  304. 
Estates,  .58.  177. 
Eth-an-dune'.  battle  of,  68. 
Eth'elbert,  King.  45,  60. 
Eth'elings,  56,  57. 
Eth'elred,  the  TTnready,  72. 
Eugene,  Prince  of  Savoy,  404. 
Ev<'s'ham.  167. 
Evictions  in  Ireland,  519. 


E.x-cheq'uer,  101,  118,  1.31. 
Excise  tax,  356,  415. 
Exclusion  Bill,  378,  374. 
Exploration,  voj'ages  of,  251,  252,  438. 

Factory  system,  489. 

Faerie  Quehie,  The,  290. 

Fairfox,  Edward,  292. 

Fairfax,  Gen.  Thomas.  328-;330,  334,  341,  350. 

Fairs,  149,  375. 

Fal'kirk,  battle  of,  174. 

Farming,  212,  294,  442. 

Fa-shO'da,  526. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  303. 

Fenian  movement,  512. 

Fe'orm,  58. 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Si)aiu,  247,  254. 

Feudalism,  basis  of  system,  55. 

culmination  of,  156-214. 

decadence  of,  217-242. 

feudalized  church,  109-112. 

feudalized  state,  95-105. 

knighthood,  20S. 

manori.al  system,  102-112. 

Norman,  95-154. 
Fiefs,  96. 

Fielding,  Henry,  448. 
Fifth  Monarchy  Men,  339. 
Finances,  Bank  of  England,  391,  392,  471. 

during  war  with  France,  470,  471. 

feudal,  107, 108, 144. 

in  Anglo-Saxon  system,  58. 

in  eighteenth  century,  413,  414,  445,  446. 

in  William  I.'s  reign.  108. 

manorial  system,  107,  108. 

reforms  in  currency,  296,  297,  392. 
Firma  burgi,  144,  178. 
Fisheries,  13.  241,  295,  403. 
Fitz-Peter,  Geoftrey,  136. 
Fitz-Stephen,  William,  153. 
Five-Mile  Act,  358. 
Flam 'bard,  Ranulf.  116. 
Flanders.  146,  147,  177,  189,  212,  241,  295. 
Flodden  Field,  battle  of,  253. 
Florida,  424,  435. 
Folkmoot,  41,  57. 
FoNt-enoy'  (-nwa'),  battle  of,  417. 
Ford,  John,  851. 
Forest  laws,  116. 

Forster,  William  Edward,  514,  533. 
Fox,  Charles  James,  432,  437,  438,  456,  472. 
France,  alliance  with  Colonies,  432,  433. 

alliance  ^nth  England,  347.  414,  503. 

alhance  with  Scotland,  174. 

Charles  II. 's  league  with,  363,  364. 

colonies  of,  420,  423,  424,  457. 

development  in,  245,  247. 

early  government  of,  76,  77. 

Edward  I.'s  war  with,  179. 

Edward  III.  claims  throne  of,  189,  190. 


INDHX 


XX.Vl 


Frani-0,  KdwanJ  Vl.'-t  war  with,  265. 

French  l{evuliition,  4ii— ir>7. 

Grand  Alliance  against,  3>>lt,  890,  395,  896. 

Henry  YMI.  anil,  ^:«,  254,  •-'•>«. 

nun.iri-.l  Yl•ar^•  War,  ly.t-l'.U,  *»i»-.'2.-). 

|>ollcy  in  l-^ryiit,  M>. 

Keroliition  In,  -IVi-I.'m. 

Seven  Years'  War,  42iM'J5. 

ftru^'ifle  with  Burpunily,  23'*. 

war  of  Austrian  !?iicce>:ii(in,  41T,  41?. 

war  orS|>anish  Succession,  401 -(U5. 
Kranchi.-e,  22(i,  4>5,  512. 
Ki-ancis  I.,  klnfj  of  France,  25!}. 
Francis  11.,  kinj;  of  France,  270. 
Franci.«,  Sir  Philip,  4-50. 
Francis'cau  friu^^,  152,  20'J. 
Frank  pletljre,  170. 
Franks,  21,  52. 

Frederick,  Klector  of  the  Palatinate,  805. 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales.  415. 
Frederick  II.,  Kuiperor,  Uii. 
Frederick  the  Great,   kinj,'  of  Prussia,  417 

420,  4-22. 
Freehold,  :i5o. 
Freeholders,  105-lo7. 
Freeman.  .'>t;,  lit;,  lOO,  lOl. 
Free  trade,  494,  .'MC,  .M7. 
French  and  Indian  War,  420-422. 
Friars,  15J,  15;J,  2»r2,  203,  209. 
FyrU  ifCrd),  69,  131. 

0:VI.  21.  22. 

(lainsborouph.  449. 

Oanllner,  ni.-.h..|i  of  Winchester,  263. 

Oilr'rick,  David.  440,  i:*\ 

Gas'co-ny,  76,  12'<,  1.57. 

OavVston.  Piers,  IS."). 

Ge-bnrs',  \(Vt. 

Gentry,  113. 

r.i„rtroy  PInntat'c  net.  121,  156. 

Geo^Taphy  ..f  Knt'land,  16-19. 

Gcorjro  I.,  407-414. 

Ooorjfe  II.,  414  424. 

Geortrc  III..  424.  427-4.S9,  472. 

Georjre  lY..  472-4*2. 

Georjria.  416. 

Ginnany,  245,  a*®.  89t);  »fe  Prussia,  etc. 

G4-;lthV,8><.  .v.. 

r>Aent,  maDnfacturln^  center,  212,  279. 

peace  of.  46.'. 
Gil.bon,  K.Uaril,  450. 

Glbral'tar,  d.f.i, f    loi    |o.-,    i.'.i    i:V. 

dllda^,  62. 
O/ot'to.  W> 

Glad'ston*-.  Willlnm  Kanrt,  .".li>-.'.l  I. -MT.  .vjo 
.'(23-52.5. 

on  Eastern  qucsll'm,  5ci3. 
Ghinvllle,  1)^1 
Glehp,  109. 
Glen-coo',  889. 


Glon'd<.nr#r,  Owen,  218. 

Ciloiicc's'tor,  42,  327. 

Gloucester,  Humphrey,  Duke  of,  22.3,  284, 

230. 
<;ioucesler,  Uichard,  Duke  of.  •»:?<;.  2:<9. 
Gloucester,  Kichanl.  Karl  of,  166,  167. 
(iloucester,  Robert,  Karl  i>f,  12:{. 
Gloucester.   Thomas,  Duke  of.  19.5. 
Go-dol'phin,  Sydney.  376,  401. 
Godwin.  Karl,  75.  -nO,  •'I. 
tiold.  in  .Vustralia.  4'.»'.l ;  in  Transvaal,  526. 
(loldsmith.  tMiver,  449,  450. 
GoikI  Parliament,  19.5,  19S. 
Gordon.  General,  519. 
(lordon  riots,  4;}6,  +37. 
Government,  .537-.'>4-< ;  nee  Parliament,  Local 

Government,  etc. 
Gow'er,  John,  205. 
(tranon,  Duke  of,  429,  431. 
(Jrand  Alliance  ajrainst  France,  3>9,  390,  .395, 

396,  401. 
Grand  Kemonstrance,  319,  320. 
ifraves,  Admiral,  434. 
Groat  Kritain.  13.  4i».5,  406. 
r.reat  riiarter.  160-162.  3.57,  xi. 
Great  Council.  6-.'.  100,  110,  130,  161.  164,  1*1. 
(ireat  Powers,  Five,  466,  467. 
(ireece,  independence  of,  497,  49>. 
Greene,  Hobert.  21HI. 
Greenwich  (prin'ij),  -367. 
(irej:ory  I.,  Pope,  4.5. 
tircfTory  YII.,  Pofie,  reforms  of.  111,  119. 
Greffor,v  XIII.,  Pope,  447. 
Gren'ville,  Georpe,  429,  4.30,  4.^^ 
Grenville,  Sir  Kichanl,  255,  297. 
Grey,  Karl.  4>4. 

Grey,  Ijidy  Kllzabeth  ( W IvIlU).  235. 

Grey,  Lady  .lane,  267. 
Grey,  I.or<l,4.56,  472,  4?J. 
Grey,  Thomas,  240. 
Grlms<like,  21. 
Gro'cj-n,  2?S. 
Grub  StrL>ot,  44$. 
r.Hl  .'nn*',  12S,  1.57,  189. 
Gi/iMs,  144.  149-151. 
Gunpowder,  -.'02,  245. 
<',iin|.owder  Plot,  303. 
Gnth'rnni.  Kinp,  67,  6'^. 

II;i'lH-a»  Corpus  Act,  373,  456,  xix. 

ILiMrian's  Wall.  2*. 

Ilak'li|i/t.   !:irhard.  2»0. 

llal'Id/JU  Hill.  I<^s. 

MninOi.m,   M,r.;.|(*  tnd  Dukr  of.  812,  881. 

II:i'  19,  .320,  .327. 

II:.  k,  449.  430. 

Hji 

Hanover,  HnuiH<  of.  4>-<l.  407-5S4. 

Han-M>at'lr  I.<<«ffno.  212,  241. 

Hapsburtr,  domains,  4U5. 


XXXll 


INDEX 


Har-di-ca-nute",  King,  76. 
//iii-fleMi-',  2'20. 
Har'greavej,  James,  443. 
Ilarley,  IJobert,  404. 
Harold,  Kin-?,  76,  S1-S7. 
Harrington,  Sir  John,  292. 
Haslerigg  (liu'z'l-rig),  320. 
Hasting-,  Danish  pirate,  6S. 
Hfistiiigs,  hattle  of,  S6. 
Hastings,  John,  172. 
Hastings,  Lord,  23S,  240. 
Hastings,  Warren,  437,  438. 
Hav'elocl^,  General,  506. 
Hawldns,  Sir  John,  282. 
Heathrteld,  battle  of,  48. 
Hel'i-go-land,  463,  464,  466. 
Hen 'gist,  33. 

Henrietta  Maria,  Queen,  806. 
Henry,  Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon,  120. 
Henry  I.,  117-122;  charter  of,  117,  ix. 
Henry  II.  (Plantagenet),  124-136. 
Henry  III.,  162-167. 

Henry  IV.  (of  Lancaster),  217-210,  l!i."-lll7. 
Henry  V.,  219-223. 
Henry  VI.,  223-235,  237. 
Henry  VII.  (Tudor),  237,  239,  249-252,  259. 
Henry  VIII.,  252-260. 
Hep'tarehy,  Sa.xon,  47. 
Heraldry,  208. 

Hereditary  succession,  182,  540. 
Hor'e-foni,  Earl  of,  123. 
Her'e-ward,  88. 
Herrick,  Robert,  351. 
Hide  of  land,  56. 
High  Commission,  Court  of,  276. 
High  Court  of  Justice,  335,  336,  355. 
Highlanders,  419,  420. 

HiI'debrand  (Pope  Gregory  VII.),  Ill,  119. 
Hin-du-stiin',  423. 
Ifhf(i'fi-a  Anglo' rum,  120. 
Illaford  (hla'vord),  39. 
Ho'garth,  William,  449. 
Ho'Aen-stau-fen  Emperors,  164. 
Hol'lng-hed,  Kapha;!,  290. 
Hol'iiar,  475. 

Holland,    alliance  against   Franco,   389-396, 
456. 

alliance  with  England,  363,  364,  414,  417. 

alliance  with  Spain,  457. 

alliance  with  Sweden,  368,  364. 

independence  of,  279. 

Louis  XIV.  invades,  S6.'?-S65. 

war  with  England,  343,  346,  359-361,  433. 
H611«§.  Denzil,  308,  309,  320. 
Ho^m'by  House,  332. 
Holy  Alliance,  497. 
Ho'lyrood  Palace,  312,  277. 
Home  Pvule  for  Ireland,  519,  520,  523-525. 
Hong'kong',  500. 
Hooper,  Bishop,  269. 


Hotspur,  Harry,  218,  219. 

House  of  Commons,  composition  of,  539,  540. 

effects  of  Keform  Bill  in,  484,  485. 

increased  powers  of,  225. 

membership  in,  895,  549. 

under  Edward  II.,  197. 
House  of  Lords,  composition  of,  538,  539, 181. 

dealings  with  Keform  Bill,  484. 

new  peers  created,  404. 

Peerage  Bill,  408,  409. 
Howard,  Lord  Charles,  282. 
Hudson  Bay  Country,  403. 
lIu'g«e-nots,  807. 
Hull,  321,  327. 
Hume,  David,  450. 
Hundred  Days,  466. 

Hundred  Years'  War,  1S9-194,  220-225. 
Hundreds,  58,  59,  100. 
Hurst  Castle,  334. 
Hus-carls,  75. 

Ilus'kisson,  William,  482,  483. 
Hiiss,  247.  . 
Ilu.xley,  Thomas,  5.33. 
Hyde,  Edward,  Lord  of  Clarendon,  357. 

Incidents  of  sovereignty,  108. 

Income  tax,  492. 

Indei)endents,  328,  330,  331. 

India,  British  in,  423-i25,  475,  476,  500,  501. 

government  of,  437,  438,  515,  543. 

mutiny  in,  504-506. 
Industrial  revolution,  211,  212,  442-445. 
Industries,  colonial,  431,  487,  488. 

in  early  history,  13,  23,  31,  74,  75. 

in  eighteenth  century,  442,  443. 

in  fifteenth  century,  241. 

in  Tudor  period,  294. 

railroads  and  steamboats  stimulate,  489. 
I'ne,  60. 

Innocent  III.,  Pope,  157-159. 
Innocent  IV.,  Pope,  104. 
Instrument  of  Government,  345,  346. 
International  law,  213,  214. 
Inventors,  202,  442,  443. 
Investiture,  118,  119. 
Invincible  Armada,  282-284. 
I-o'na,  45,  48. 
Ireland,  aids  Porkin  Warbeck,  250. 

Catholic  Association,  483. 

Christianit}'  in,  44,  45. 

conquest  of,  128,  129. 

Cromwell  in,  339,  341. 

famine   in,  492-494. 

Fenianism  and  disestablishment,  512,  513, 

Henry  ^'III.'s  policy  in,  259. 

Home  Kule  question,  .519,  520,  524,  525. 

Irish  Land  Acts.  518,  514,  524,  534. 

James  II.  and,  378,  388. 

local  government  in,  524. 

rebellions  in,  196,  276,  235,  319,  475. 


INDKX 


XX  Mil 


lreliin<l,  >elf-pi>verniiu>iil  of.  'J^O,  -i'-^l- 

Tltho  War  in.  -Is'J.  490. 

union  Willi  Crtat  Urilain,  478. 

Wcntworth'.-*  tyriinny  in,  Hln. 

William  III.  .-uIkIuis  a>*,  :js9. 
Irf 'tun,  llcnrj,  *iV,  !M0. 
Iron,  442,  448. 
Iron  age,  "JO. 

Iron  Duke,  WiUcsley  callwl,  4C". 
l>at>ellu  of  AN->;"j"-li'ni"'  Vlaiii'),  H>«. 
l>:il.ellu,  tiuii-n  of  Spain.  *J.">4. 
IsjibiUa,  liuiin,  wife  of  E«l«ar<l  II.,  l^T,  li>5. 

•lack  Cain's  rol.ellion,  'J;:!. 

.lai'obito  Intrigues,  3yi-m,  4o7,  40S,  41?. 

Jnniui'ca,  aoqulrwl,  347. 

James  I.  (VI.  of  Seotlaml),  27S,  80(V-:Vi<i. 

Janu-.s  II.,  Kin-  37lW;<-.|  ;  3>6,  3S-^:;iMi.  3li(i. 

as  Diikf  ..I  York.  357,  3Ml,  373,  37:..  ' 
James  111.  (Pretender^,  39f.,  40.1,  41)7,  40S. 
James  IV.,  Kinjr  of  S.-otland,  249,  -.'^H. 
James  V.,  Kin;;  of  Scotland,  259. 
James  VI.,  Kin;:  of  Sn.tland,  27s,  JUHl-jOf,. 
Jii'me-son,  I'aptain,  .'>27. 
.lamestown,  313. 

Japan,  treaty  witli  Oreal  Britain,  .Vi2. 
Jeanne  d'Are  l/.lian).  22;l-22r>. 
.letTrevs,  Jiidu'i'  Francis,  377. 
Je'na  lya'l,  4tiJ. 
Jenkins.  Captain,  416. 
Jenninifs.  Sarali,  401,  4(M. 
Jer'vls  (jfir'-).  Admiral,  iTil. 
Jenisidem.  13C,  .V)2. 
Jesuits.  275. 

Jews  In  Knpland,  151.  177,  :U7. 
eliv'iMe  to  rarliamcnt,  511. 

Joan'  of  Arc.  22:;-2-.'5. 
Jo-hrin'ncs  liuru  (yo  ),  .'>2T. 
John.  Kinir.  I.V,-|tV.'. 
as  prince.  129.  13«.  I«7. 

John  of  Gaunt.  IHt-il'ti.  204. 

Johnson,  I>r.  Saiiiiul.  44h,  449. 

Jon.son.  Ben.  29o.  •.".H. 

Joseph,  Kinp  of  Spain.  4W. 

.lovce.  Cornet.  'Mi. 

.ludpes.  131,  895;  ki-i-  Courts. 

Julius  II..  Po|H'.  2.'vl. 

JumLife*  (7.hriniya/h'».  Archbishop,  »\. 

.Ifiii'iiis  (-yus).  *■'•>'•■ 

Jury,  m,  17fi. 

Justices  of  the  pence,  210. 

Jus-tlVI-ar  (tlsh'IPr),  101,  104. 

Jfitz-s.  12,38,  3«.  41. 

K.\  b«|-,  500. 
Knllirs.  :.<ll.:r«»2. 
Ki-als,  .lohn,  477. 
K.lvln.  Lonl,  .Vta. 
Ken.  Bishop,  879. 
Kent.  47.  50,  «*-. 
K/iu'lifa.  52f.. 


KAar-tlim'.  519,  52*>. 

Killie^run'kie.  battle  of,  3*!». 

Kim'luM-leV,  .Mepeof.  .VJ^. 

Kim'bolton.  Karl  of  Manchester.  320.  32Sv-330. 

Kinj;,  powers  of,  .'>7,  100,  540;  ««•«;   I'rirok'a- 

tive,  Parliament,  etc. 
Kinp-maker,  Warwick  called,  ■£i'l. 
King's  Bench,  Court  of,  131,  176,  87y. 
King's  Council,  101,  ItW,  167,211  ;  me  Cjria. 
Kinsalr',  3s*'. 

Kitcli'ener,  (ieneral,  526,  52S. 
Knighlliood,20H. 
Knight's  fee, '.16. 
Knights  llos'pi-tal-lers,  120. 
Knights  of  St.  John.  459. 
Knights  of  the  t;arter,  203. 
Knights  Templars,  120,  20S. 
Knox,  John.  277. 
Kru'ger  (-Ker).  Paul,  517,  527,  52S. 

La  //6ffue',  390. 

Ijiborers.  106,  107,  209-212,  471,472. 
Ladysmith,  siege  of,  52S. 
La^rfeld,  battle  of,  417. 
Ijike  poets,  476. 
Lancaster,  Karl  of,  IS",  18S. 
Ijincaster,  Mouse  of,  22S,  217-'235. 
Land,  tenure  of.  in   Kngland,  ^'^  5ti.  ».',  i"  ', 
10.5.  122.   176.   177.  3.V). 
in  Ireland.  494.  513,  514,  .'•>34. 
in  Scotland.  523.  .524. 
I.;ind  Acts,  Irish,  513,  .514,  524,  584. 
Ijinfranc.  Archl.ishoi>,  112. 
Lant'land.  William.  203. 
Langside,  battle  of,  27S. 
Ijmgton,  Stephen.  1.5;*,  159,  162. 
Ijinguage.  Kngli.sh,  61,  205. 
Las-g«e-doc'.  19-3. 
Ijit'imer.  Bishop.  26*. -269. 
Ijitin  church.  4.5.  4s-;«o  ;  see  Church. 
Uud.  Archbi.Hhop.  309  311.  31«.  3:W. 
Lau-di-r-dale'.  .lohn.  I»uke  of,  862. 
Imw.  international.  213,  214. 
Learning,  the  new.  2s9,  290. 

Le/ivs'ter.  Karl  of,  2''2. 

Leicester,  Kdward  of  York  nt,  aJT. 

Lci(//''t"".  KrtHlerick,  588. 

L.  iiiVter.  129. 

Leiit'/.all.  William,  821,849. 

U-  orric.  Ijirl.  SI. 

UopoUl  I.,  Kmperor.  3»8,  896. 

Less.'ps.  Kenllnand  de.  518. 

Levcll.-rs.  Xi'J. 

Lew'es,  battle  of.  li'^'>. 

IJIxnd  rnh.nist  parly,  .V28. 

Liberals.  .'»i8. 

Life.  Crusades  Inlluencc  city  life.  I4h.  149. 
durinir  Nnpolioiili-  wars,  471,  472. 
in    Norman    p.-rLnl,   96.  97.   10:*-l"7.    Mi- 
ll;!   1  r.'-i.M.  •."o.v 


XXXIV 


INDEX 


Life,  in  1100-1350,  141-154. 

in  1250-1400,201-214. 

social  reforms,  4ST,  488. 

under  House  of  Hanover,  442-447,  471,  472. 

under  Lancaster  and  York,  240,  241. 

under  Plantagenets,  141-154,  20C-20S,  213. 

under  Romans,  31. 

under  Saxon  rule,  72-75. 

under  Stuarts,  355,  356,  365,  366. 

under  Tudors,  293.  294. 
Ligny  (len-ye'),  battle  of,  466. 
Lilk,'  212. 

Lion  of  Justice,  Henry  J.  called,  118. 
Literature,  after  Revolution,  409,  410. 

Augustan  Age  of,  409,  410. 

dawn  of  English,  61,  62. 

In  eighteenth  century,  448,  450,  476. 

in  seventeenth  century,  351,  352,  366,  367. 

new  learning,  289,  290. 

Renaissance,  247.  ■ 

Tudor  period,  289-292. 

Victorian,  532,  533. 
Liverpool,  Lord,  472,  4S2. 
Livery  and  maintenance,  231. 
Llewelyn  (loo-el'lin).  Prince  of  Wales,  171. 
Local  Government  Act,  524. 
Loire  (Iwiir),  193. 
Lollards,  203,  219. 
Londin'i-um,  31. 
London,  commercial  center,  19. 

description  of,  about  1200, 145. 

Are  in,  360. 

government  of,  144,  145,  x.,  524. 

in  Civil  War,  320,  326,  327,  333. 
London  Bridge,  249. 
London  Convention,  517. 
Londonder'ry,  siege  of,  388. 
LoNgr-cbamp'  (-sho.-*'),  William,  136. 
Long  Parliament,  313,  317-350. 
Lords,  House  of,  see  House  of  Lords. 
Lords  Appellant,  195. 
Lords  of  the  Congregation,  277. 
Lords  Ordainers,  185. 
Lost-with'jel,  battle  of,  329. 
Louis  (afterwards  Louis  VIIL  of  France),  162. 
Louis  VII.,  King  of  France,  128. 
Louis  IX.,  King  of  France,  165,  166. 
Louis  XL,  King  of  France,  247. 
Louis  XIII.,  King  of  France,  306. 
Louis  XIV.,  King  of  France,  363. 

Charles  II. 's  dependence  on,  371. 

enmity  of  William  III.  of  Orange,  372. 

Holland  invaded,  363-365. 

James  II.  aided  by,  3SS. 

Palatinate  War,  380,  389-391. 

War  of  Spanish  Succession,  394,  395,  401- 
405. 
Louis  XVI.,  King  of  France,  456. 
Louis  XVIII.,  King  of  France,  465. 
Louisburg,  418,  422. 


Lovelace,  Richard,  351. 

Low  Countries,  see  Netherlands. 

Wnce' stott,  battle  off,  359. 

Luck'now,  505,  506. 

Luddites,  472. 

Ludlow  Castle,  102. 

Lyl'v',  John,  289. 

Mac-ad'am,  John  Loudon,  489. 

Macaula}%  Thomas  B.,  532. 

Macdonald  clan,  389. 

MacDon'oi/y/A,  Commander,  465. 

Machinery,  use  of,  442,  443,  472. 

Madras',  423. 

Ma-fe-king',  siege  of,  528. 

Mag'da-len  College,  377. 

M:ig'na-ehar'ta,  160-162,  357,  117,  xi. 

Mag'num  Con-cil'i-um,  see  Great  Council. 

Mahdist  revolt,  517. 

.Mah-rat'ta  states,  423,  475. 

Maine,  province  in  France,  128,  157. 

Ma-ju'ba  Hill,  517. 

Malcota,  King  of  Scotland,  88,  118. 

Mal'o-ry,  Sir  Thomas,  242. 

Mal-pla-quet'  (-ka'),  battle  of,  404. 

Malta,  458-460,  466. 

Manchester,  riot  at.  473. 

Manchester,  Earl  of  (Edward  Montagu,  Lord 

Kimbolton),  .320,  328-330. 
Manchuria,  529-5:32. 
Manor,  74,  105,  102-112. 
Manorial  system,  102-112. 
Manufactures,  212,  241,  294,  442, 443,  489,  493. 
Mar,  Earl  of,  408. 

March,  Earl  of,  188.  , 

Mar-f  haNd',  Major,  526. 
Marches,  99. 

Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  249. 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  225,  232-237. 
Margaret  of  England,  88,  118. 
Ma-ri'a  The-rc'sa,  417,  420. 
Mariner's  compass,  245. 
Maritime  enterprise  encouraged,  249.  250. 
Marlborough,  Duke  of  (John  Churchill),  379, 

380,  393.  401-404. 
Mar'lowe,  Christopher,  290. 
•Marshal,  King's,  101. 

Marshiill,  William,  Earl  of  Pembroke.  163. 
Marston  Moor,  battle  of,  329. 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  265,  274,  276-2>.l. 
Mary  (Tudor),  Queen,  254,  25S.  264,  267-270. 
Mary,  wife  of  William  III.,  372, 380,  386,  387, 

391. 
Mary  of  GwTje,  277. 
Maryland,  361. 
Ma'serfleld,  battle  of,  48. 
Mash'am,  Mrs..  404. 
Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  313. 
Mas-sil'i-a.  22. 
Mas'singer,  Philip,  351. 


INDIA 


XXXV 


MatiMa,  daughter  of  Henry  I..  I-.M-l'-M. 

MtttiUltt,  wife  of  Ih'iiry  I.,  IIS. 

Mau-ril"ius  (rlsh'-).  4«k5. 

Ma-za-rin'  (-rus').  Jules,  847. 

Meiri-ol  (vhv).  i4«i. 

Ms  "li'iia  (-au'-»  ST-«lo'ni-u,  Dukc  of,  -.'SJ. 

Mi-l'lxMini*,  Visoiiunt,  4s'>. 

NUii.llcaiit  friars,  IW. 

Merchant   A<lventurers,    coiii|iany    of.    -.".i.', 

214. 
MiTilianls  of  the  J^taple,  2S1. 
Mer'eia  (->hi-a>.  4'.',  4",  50,  51,  To,  ;:.. 

|ire«loniin:inee  of,  !**. 
Mer't.m,  Walter  <le,  201. 
Me'<rn'  tenants.  '.Mi. 
Meth.Hli>ts.  4.M. 
Miehael  An'gelo,  '24S. 
Mil'an,  401. 

Milan  Decree,  46'2,  4A4. 
Militia.  «^>nlinance  of  llie,  :«!,  :«•_'. 
Mil-hii*'.  Sir  ,Iohn  Kverett,  588. 
Milton,  John.  '.IM.  .S4.S.  8.Vi. 
Mimlen,  battle  of,  4JJ. 
Minlnff,  2:?,  442. 
.Ministry,  I'abinet,  »<•<•  Ciil.inct. 
Minor'ca,  4m.  4it.''..  4:t4,  *C.. 
Miquelon  (nu-k'-lA.N'),  425. 
Misc  of  Amiens,  IGfi. 
MtMlel  I'arliuinent,  1*1. 
Moirul'.  Great.  428,  424. 
Mo'na,  Holv  Man.l  of.  28,  27. 
Monasteries,  fil,  71.  11",  120,  121,  I.-.2. 

sn|i|(resse<l.  2.'>7,  258. 
Money,  29fi,  •21t7,  .S92. 
Money  prn"'*.  "••• 

Monev  power  anil  Parliainent.  ISt,  lv2. 
Monk,  tien.  (;eon:e,  :«2,  »48,  850,  -357,  8.-MI. 
Monks,  Mff  Monasterlesi. 
Monmouth.  Duke  of.  873,  876,  877. 
Monro<-,  Pre^iiUnt,  497. 
MoN».  Uttle  <if,  414. 
Mon'lapu.  Charles.  8!tl. 
Montatru.  I.onl,  287. 
Monteii/m'.  (iencrel,  422. 
Monlent'irro,  514. 
Mon'fort,  Simon  ile,  Ifif.,  1C7,  1S1. 
M" III  real',  422. 
M..Mir..^.''',  Vjirlof,  880,  831. 
M.M.t  syalem,  39,  .'>7.  100. 
.More,  Sir  Thomas.  2<t.  21X). 
Morkar,  Karl.  ■<2.  %'>,  -<7.  "«■'. 
Mortimer,  K.lwln,  Fjirl  of  M  t,  1,    ji:    _M'. 
Mortimer,  Hoifer,  1S7,  1»"'. 
Mi>untj.»y,  I»nl.  2<.. 
Municipal  l:ef..rm  Act  of  Kl.'-.  I"'.,  «-T 
Murray.  .lames  Stuart.  Kjirl  of,  277.  27*. 
Mu»lc,' in  eighteenth  ■■.•'.ll.r^     U''    1."". 
Mutinies,  In  navy.  4T  : 
Mutiny  Act,  8-7. 
Mutiny,  Indian,  .VW,  .V»V 


Na'mur,  890. 
Nup'ler,  Sir  Charles,  .'h"). 
Naples,  401. 
Na-po'le-on,  4.'')7-4»>7. 
NaS«''by,  battle  of,  :«0,  8;J1. 
.Nash,  Thomas,  290. 
Natal',  .'■><I2,  .Vis. 
.NA-vA-ri'no,  Bay  of,  49S. 
Navl;fation  .\ct.s.  Colonies  opposed  to,  431. 
Hollim.rs  opiiosition  to,  Wi,  :VAi,  861. 
of  Henry  Vn.,251. 
repealed,  494. 
.Nayy.  Knglisli,  6S.  69,  .856,  403,  4.8.8,  +«,  .M6. 
Nec'tans-mer«'.  battle  of,  .'iO. 
N£cr'wi*n-<len  (yln-t,  battle  of,  390. 
Nelson,  Admiral  457-461. 
Nen'ni-us,  62. 
Ne-o-lith'lc  a^re.  20.  21. 
Netherlands.  279,  2*0,  294  ;  «cc  lloll.-ind. 
Netherlands.  Austrian,  4."irt. 
Netherlands,  Spanish.  868,  89.S,  8;»6,  401. 
Ney'iU.-,  Uichard.  Karl  of  Warwick,  235. 
Neyllles  Cross,  battle  of.  19:}. 
New  .\nistenlam.  8.')9,  861. 
New  .lersey.  861. 
New  learnins,  2*9,  21tO. 
New  M.Hlel  army.  3.S0,  331.  834. 
New  Netherlanil.  861. 
New  Or'le-ans,  42.''i,  465. 
New  York,  861. 
New  Zealand.  4:{*.  499. 
Newcastle,  Thoma*.  Wuke  of.  422. 
Newcastle,  William,  IMike  of,  82S,  329,  331. 
Newcoiii'en.  Thomas,  442. 
New'foundlan<l.  40.'>. 
Newmar'ket,:«2,  88.3. 
Newspapers,  44s. 
Ni-air'ara,  420,  422. 
Nicholas,  C/jir,  504. 
Nleholson,  <?eneral,  .'>06. 
Nile,  battle  of  the,  l.'.S. 
Nim'wi;  cen.  treaty  of,  371,  .872. 
Nobility.  118. 

Non-conformists.  802,  813,  3.W,  873. 
Norfolk,  Duke  of,  27s. 
Nonuan  archlleoture,  14S,  149. 
Norman  kincs,  127. 
Normandy.  77.  s.8,  121,  12S,  l!i7. 
Normans.  Britain  Inviubxl  by,  12,  **-91. 
conquests  of.  siuOl. 
customs,  96,  97,  103-107,  141   TW,  149-l.M. 

205. 
Inlluenco  on  commerce  and  social  life,  146, 

147. 
Innkruatrc.  205. 
Ia««,  are  Ki-udalisin. 
Nor«.-incn  (|)an<v»).  •W77. 
North.  l.onl.  429-4.n4. 
North  Britain.  406. 
North  Wales,  42.  Vi. 


XXXVl 


INDEX 


Northal'lerton,  battle  near,  123. 
Northamp'ti.n,  234,  325. 
Northmen  (Danes),  65-TT. 
Northumberland,  Duke  of,  265,  267. 
Northumberland,  Percy,  Earl  of,  2 IS. 
Northumberland,  Scotland  acquires,  123,  313. 
Northum'bria,  42,  47-51,  70,  75. 

])redominance  of,  47,  48. 
Norton,  Thomas,  290. 
Nor' (rich,  294. 
NottingAaui,  .325,  443. 
Nottingham,  Earl  of,  195,  196. 
Nova  Sco'tia  (-shi-a),  404,  405. 
Novel,  English,  44S. 

Gates,  Dr.  Titus,  372,  375. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  4m. 

Odo  of  Ba-yeux',  99,  112. 

Offa,  King^  50,  51,  60. 

Om-dur'man,  526. 

O'Neils,  revolts  of,  276,  285. 

Open  door  policy,  529. 

Operas,  449,  45o". 

Opium  war,  499. 

Orange  Free  State,  502,  528. 

Ordeal,  60. 

Orders  in  Council,  378,  463,  465. 

Ordinance  of  the  Militia,  321,  322. 

Orleanists,  220,  223,  225. 

Or-le-iiNs',  223. 

Orleans,  Duke  of,  222. 

Oswald,  48. 

Oswy,  King,  48,  49. 

Ou-den-iir'de,  battle  of,  404. 

0.\ford,  Earl  of,  195,  250,  251. 

Oxford  University,  153,  201,  202,  289, 377,  514. 

Painf,  Thomas.  445. 

Painting,  248,  352,  449. 

Pal-at'i-nate,  war  of,  -380,  389,  391. 

Pal'atine  counties,  99. 

Pale,  the,  259. 

Pa-le-o-lith'ic  age,  19,  20. 

Piito'erston,  Lord,  486,  500,  503-505,  510,  51 1. 

Pan-ti-soc'racy,  476. 

Paris,  treaties  of,  424,  504. 

Parish  church,  105. 

Parishes,  109. 

Parliament,  538-542. 

and  colonies,  430^32. 

and  representation,  427,  428,  430. 

Charles  I.'s  contest  with,  307-309,  824. 

class  distinctions  in,  179,  180,  181. 

clergy  in,  181,  198. 

control  over  sjiecial  taxation,  179. 

Convention,  3.50,  351,  355,  356,  386,  387. 

Cromwell  and,  .343-;B48. 

Edward  IV.  rules  without,  238. 

first   steps  in  Parliamentary  government, 
171-183. 


I'arliament,nenry  III.  and,  164,  165. 

in  VViUiam  I.'s  reign,  100. 

in  fourteenth  century,  197,  198. 

in  Lancastrian  period,  225,  226. 

James  I.'s  contest  with,  303-306,  324. 

Long,  318,  317-350. 

of  1265,  166,  167. 

origin  of,  62,  100,  ISO,  181. 

reforms  in,  435,  436,  472,  473,  483-185,  511, 
512. 

Restoration,  356. 

Rump,  3-35,  336,  .342-:344,  349,  350. 

two  houses  of,  197,  198. 

voting    lists,    published,    487. 

jSee  (i/so  House. 
Parma,  Duke  of,  279,  280,  282,  284. 
Par'nell,  Charles  Stuart,  520,  524,  525. 
Partition  Treaty,  395. 
Party  names,  374. 
Patrick,  Saint,  44. 
Patriots,  415. 

Pauli'nus,  &ue-to'ni-us  (swe-),  27. 
Pa-vi'a,  battle  of,  258. 
Peasants'  Revolt,  210. 
Ps'chi-li',  Gulf  of,  529. 
Peel,  Sir  Robert,  482,  484,  486,  492,  493 
Peelc,  George,  290. 
Peerage  Bill,  408,  409. 
Peers  of  the  realm,  ISO. 
Pe-king',  507,  532. 
Penda,  47,  48. 
Peninsula  campaign,  464. 
Penn,  Admiral,  347. 
Penn,  William,  361. 
Pen 'nine  Chain,  16. 
Penny-post  system,  492. 
Pen'rith,  battle  at,  419. 
Pentarchy,  466,  498. 
People's  Charter,  490. 
Percys,  196,  218. 
Persia,  Russia  and,  500,  528,  529. 

trade  with,  295. 
Peterloo  massacre,  473. 
Petition  of  Right,  307,  308,  .357,  xvii. 
Petitioners,  374. 
Pe'trarch,  248. 
Pev'ensey,  43. 

PhiHp  II.",  King  of  Spain,  268,  269,  279,  296. 
Philip  VI.,  King  of  France,  189-192. 
Philili  Augustus,  King  of  France,  128,  137, 

138,  156,  157. 
Philip  of  Anjou,  39.5-105. 
I'hil'ip-pines,  423,  424. 
PlMe-ni'eian  (-shan)  traders,  21,  22. 
I'ii'ts  and  Scots,  conversion  of,  45. 

life  of,  22. 

raids  of,  33. 

Romans  conquer,  28. 

settlements  of,  43,  44. 

victories  of,  50. 


INDIA' 


X  X  X  \  u 


l'i0.1'iii«>nt,  •»^9. 

I'iei»  l/i<'  Ploiriiinii.   Vifioii  of,  'iC:^. 

l»il;rrliuaBe  of  (irace,  2.V>. 

I'irat.s.  tys,  ."UT. 

ritt.  Williain,  (Chatbaiii).  ■«-"-■  <-'^- 

oil  l-..l..iiial  .nustion.  4-jy,  \M.  Wi. 
Pitt,  Williain.  tho  Yountfcr.  4;iT.  4;t-*.  y'"'- _ 
^lllrill^'  Napoleonic  wars,  4I>T.  4i".i),  4tV.',  -JTo 
4Trt. 
VlaKiio,  SfH). 

l'lai.-«r.(S'i-nets,  127.  l-2>-13s.  1M-19S. 
Plas'si  y.  battle  of,  424. 
riaii'tiiis  (shi-usl,  Aiiliis,  2". 
I'limilitiis  2(«. 
P.K-kot  iH.iouijhs,  42'*,  4:W. 
r«l-tiers'  (pwu-tyi'i't,  batllt-  of,  104. 
Poi-tou'  (l-wfi-t.  7C.  12^.  l.')T. 
Polo.  I'ni^liiial.  2i'^,  2tW,  270. 
Police  .•<y>t»'iii,  dvatitl,  17(>. 
Poll  tax'.  811.  lif^,  211. 
Pon.li  vlH-r'r.v.  42:5.  424. 
PoN-ttii.ii'  (-tyC'),  VJl,  iy4. 
I'oor  Law.  4-<7. 
Pope,  acainst  barons,  lt)2. 
an.l  Kli/Jiboth.  27:5.  274.  27s. 
an.i  ll.nry  Vlll..  2.'4-2.')7. 
anil  Mary.  2fi9.  27ii. 
i-ffort  to  control  kiiiploiiis.  U'A. 
Inv.stiturc,  Us,  119. 
Iri^h  atfairs,  276.  2<>. 
KIni;  .lolin  a  vassal  of.  I.W. 
pope,  .\U".xan(UT.  410.  44S. 
Popish  Plot,  872,  :«7S. 
I'ort  .\rtliitr,  .%S0,  Ml. 
Portiiifiil.  2yC,  463.  404,  4S3. 
PoynlnK*  Act,  2.')9,  4;<7. 
Pniirinntlc  ^'anction,  417. 
Prayer  book,  2CC,  2tW,  274,  35S. 
I'rciiiier.  .'"<W. 

Preroiratlve,  royal.  8iM»-;U4,  357,  8SC,  400.  4ol 
Presbvterianisin,  27.'>. 
in  Knda.i.I,  3In.  32o.  32S-.384. 
in  Scotlan.l,  27.V277,  311.  312.  :?s<». 
Press,  fre.-.loiii  of,  3'.»2,  W\  436. 
Preston.  iMittle  of,  H:«. 
Preten.ler  {.lanus  III.V  396.  40,',.  407.  40v 
Pr.  t.  tmIit.  Yoiintr.  41•^. 
y  .   T  .'ri  11  t'onretitlon.  '"17. 
I'M  t.l  lot'  Islamls.  .V2:.. 
Pi  i.l.-s  I'urce,  3:t4.  H.t:..  3.'.o. 
Prtino  minister,  4t»S  .V.'J,  .'>4I. 
IVinee  of  Wale..  172. 
IVlnllni:  pr<ss.  241.  242.  24.'>. 
Priories.  120. 
Pri.son  reform,  4S.H. 
Privy  foiinril.  2.'*.  361.  .'►10. 
Protective  tnrilT.  4«2.  I>:t.  .'>17. 
I'rotectorate.  lU.'-Uy. 
Protcsttttitisui.  ill  KnKlan.l,2M-266,  27o,  2" 
274. 


Protestantism,  In  IloUanil,  279. 

in  Irelan.l.  276,  473.  4V.t,  490. 

Thirty  Years"  War,  :;o.'.. 

toleration  for.  :147.  3^7. 
Provisli>ns  of  MxfonI,  H'^^.  lOt'.. 
I'rovi.sors,  Statute  of,  PJS. 
I'russia,  In  Napoleonic  wars,  4.'.fi,  l.V.t,  4t'.> 

in  Seven  Year.*"  War.  420,  421. 

in  War  of  Austrian  Suceessi 417. 

one  of  Pentarehy,  466. 

tariff  war  with.  4SJ. 

traile  with,  241. 
Prj-nH*'.  William.  311. 
Pun-ji'ib'.  tm.  :*n. 
I'uritans.  .loctrines  of.  274,  27.'),  302. 

eminralioil  to  America.  311.  313.  314. 
Purvevance.  2:^1.  *'>6. 
Pym.  '.lohn,  3l>^,  309,  317-320,  82S. 

guakers,  361. 
tiuobec',  422. 

lijHrlan,  castlo  of,  3.31. 

Uailroads.  4S9. 

i:a'l*i(/A,  Sir  Walter,  297,  3t»2. 

i:„,„bler,  44S. 

l;a  nii/-/ie«'  (ye),  battle  of.  4o4. 

Kan'e-la(/A  (.'aniens,  446. 

Ueciprocity  of  Duties,  4SJ. 

Ueeou'nitors,  132.  13:J. 

Keeu'.*ants.  27.'>. 

l:eev.-.  .'>y,  1".''. 

lleform  Hill  <'f  1S:V2,  4M. 

Ueform  ISiilof  ls67.  .'.12. 

Keformatlon.  causes  of.  247. 

first,  -.'o;!  -jn.'!. 

In  Knulanil,  2M,  2.'Hi,  264-267. 

in  Kurope,  2r>4. 

In  Ireland,  276. 
Ileitrn  of  Terror,  in  France,  45T. 
U.llef  fee.  los. 

l;.•li^'ion.  I>rui<lic  system,  2:1. 
early,  44.  4.'>,  4>-.'io. 
of  Teutons,  3s. 
Stf  iiImo  Church. 

l^.naiVsaxv",  247;  In  KnKlaml.  2<i'>-293. 

i;epr«"senlati.>n,  427.  42->.  430,  4M. 

Uepresicntttlive  (•overniiient,  M7. 

KoRtoratlon.  :Vi.'>-:467. 

l:e<itomtlon  I'nrlinment,  Vi6. 

l;etainer«.  liverie.1.  2:M,  iW. 

A'crcnyc,  2"».'>. 

Uevlval,  at'e  of.  in  Knt.'lan<l,  2-»^298. 

Kevoliltion.  American.  42y-l;t.'>. 

devolution.  Kri-nch,  4.'«.*.-4.'>7. 

U.volutlon  ..n6'^».  3>-»,  3s|. 

INynoMs,  Sir   I     '.  i  ..  149. 

i:Ae/in;,  2-.' 
:;.     Kho«le»,  <  • 

Ulchanl  1.,-* ;  ■••   •-     ^■'    '   '■-'■> 


XXXVIU 


INDEX 


Richard  II.,  195-197,  211. 

Richard  III.  (of  Gloucester),  238,  239. 

Richard,  Duke  of  York,  230,  231,  232. 

Richard,  son  of  Edward  IV..  23S,  239. 

Richard  de  Clare  (Strongbow),  129. 

Richard  of  Cornwall,  IW. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  448. 

Ridley,  Bishop,  26S,  2G9. 

Right  of  search,  416,  433,  458,  465. 

Rivers,  Karl,  240. 

Riz'zi-o  (ret'se-o),  David,  27S. 

Roads,  in  eighteenth  century,  443. 

Roman.  30. 

under  West  Saxons,  71. 
Ro-a-nokf'  Island,  297. 
Robert,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  115. 
Robert,  of  Normandy,  115,' 118,  121. 
Roberts,  Lord,  515,  528. 
R6'bes-\ni'rre,  Ma.ximilien,  457. 
Rofhe-f6rr,467. 
Ro-fheUe',  307,  808. 
Rochester,  66,  166. 
Roch 'ester.  Earl  of,  876. 
Rocking/tarn,  Marquis  of,  428,  429,  432,  434. 
Rodney,  Admiral,  434. 
Roger  of  Salisburj',  118. 
Rolf,  the  Northman,  77. 
Rolls  (in  feudal  system),  103. 
Roman  Catholics,  see  Catholics. 
Romans,  in  Britain,  11,  25—34. 
Romantic  literature,  289,  290. 
Roses,  Wars  of,  232-240. 
Rotten  boroughs,  260,  485,  484. 
RoM-en'  ^-a^■'),  275. 
Roumania,  515. 
Round  Table,  legends  of,  43. 
Roundheads,  327. 
Royal  fish,  108. 

Royal  prerogative,  300-314,  357,  386,  400,  401. 
Royal  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Natural 

Knowledge,  367. 
Royal  Society  of  Painters,  449. 
Rule  of  17.56,"  457. 

Rump  Parliament,  .335,  336,  342-344,  849,  350. 
Runnj-mede.  ICO. 
Rupert,  Prince.  327,  329,  831,  360. 
Ruskin,  John,  532. 

Russell,  Lord  High  Admiral,  379,  .380,  .391. 
Russell,  Lord  .John,  484,  485,  493,  511. 
Russia,  Afghanistan  boundary  fl.\ed,  517. 

alliance  with  France,  417. 

armed  neutrality  of,  4-33,  4.59. 

coalition  with  England,  460. 

concessions  in  Persia,  500,  528,  529. 

Continental  System  accepted  by,  462. 

Crimean  War,  503,  .504. 

Eastern  question,  497,  498,  502-504,   514. 
515. 

fur  trade  with,  205. 

Greek  Revolution  aided  by,  497,  498. 


Russia,  Napoleon  invades,  464. 

one  of  Pentarchy,  466. 

opportunity  in  Manchuria,  529-5.32. 

Siberian  railway,  .529. 

war  with  Japan,  532. 
Russian-Turkish  War,  514,  515. 
Ryg'wick,  treaty  of,  390,  391. 

Sac  and  soc,  99. 

Sa-ghev'er-ell,  Dr.,  404. 

Saekville,  Thomas,  Earl  of,  288,  290. 

St.  Al'banj,  battles  of,  2.33,  235. 

St.  Albans,  Viscount,  805. 

St.  Denis'  (sax),  191. 

St.  George,  Ft.,  423,  424. 

St.  Ger-m.i/.N'  (sas-zher-),  389. 

St.  He-lG'na,  408,  467. 

St.  John  (sin'jon),  Henry,  see  Bolingbroke. 

St.  Paul's  school,  289. 

St.  Pierre  (saff  pj"fir),  425. 

Saladin,  Sultan,  136. 

Salaman'ea,  464. 

Sal/j'bury,  Earl  of,  234,  235. 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of,  520,523,  524. 

Salisbury,  school  at,  153. 

Salisbury  Law,  98. 

Salma'sius  (-shi-us),  343. 

San  Ste'pha-no,  peace  of,  514. 

Sand  River  Convention,  502. 

Sandwich,  294. 

San-ti-a'go,  282. 

San 'to  Do-min'go,  282. 

Sardinia,  417,  504. 

Sa'rum,  41. 

Sa-vo-na-ro'la,  Girolamo,  247.  , 

Saxon  Heptarchy,  47. 

Saxons,  customs  and  laws,  12. 

invasions,  12,  21,  32,  83,  41. 

settlements,  42. 

See  also  Anglo-Saxons. 
Sea-fell',  16. 

Scandinavians,  20,  21,  65,  241 ;  see  Danes. 
Schoolmen,  240. 
Schools,  after  Reform  Bill,  488. 

in  fourteenth  century,  153, 154. 

under  Tudors,  289. 

See  also  Education. 
Science,  305,  367,  5-32,  533. 
Scin'di-a,  475. 
Seon^,  174. 
Scotland,  alliance  with  England,  328-330. 

alliance  with  France,  174. 

and  Charles  I.,  331-3.38. 

and  Charles  II.,  361,  362. 

Catholics  in,  37S. 

Cromwell's  victories  in,  834,  341,  342. 

crown  offered  to  William  and  Mary,  389. 

David  Bruce  in,  193,  194. 

Edward  I.  con(|uers.  174,  175. 

Edward  VI. 's  war  with,  265. 


INDKX 


XXXIX 


Scotland,  England  suxeraln  over,  IT'.'. 

priiwtli  i>r  kirit;il<>iii,  44,  77. 

Ilfiiry  IV.  liven u'.i  ri>ii>iiiniries,  '.'I-*. 

Il.nr'v  VIII.  s  \v!ir  with,  -'.'-t.  •-•.•«9. 

.IiuiiWto  ii|iri>iii|k'.>  ill,  40ji.  4l'N-f.»o. 

kiiiK*  of.  \'-i. 

land  tcniiro  in,  Tf'2H.  524. 

L:uur»  fuiliirf  in.  Mil. 

Im-al  irovorniuiMil  in,  .VJ4. 

rr..-.bytorianisni  in,  r.C.  277,  .S12,  *59. 

ri-lHtion.«  with  Henry  II.,  li^. 

n-lation.s  with  Kichard  I.,  130,  1:!7. 

relatiiins  with  Ste|iheii,  12-*i. 

revolt  aijainst  Kpisciiiiacy,  312. 

KolMrt  Bruee  master  of,  ISVHT. 

southern,  Edwanl  overloni  of,  70. 

thirty  years'  i»eace  with,  1>9. 

union  with  England,  405,  4i»6. 

.Sf'«'  <//*"  Plots. 
Scott.  Sir  Walter.  477,  47S. 
S<Ti|itures,  translated,  292. 
Sculpturt>,  2+'*. 
Sontajre.  130,  1.31.  161. 
Sfalinc,  625. 
St'ba.s'topol,  .V«,  504. 
Secret  Service  Knnd,  414. 
Se<lan  chair,  44.'>. 
Sedeeinoor,  battle  of,  377. 
See.  bishop's.  KUt. 
Selfnlenyln);  Onlinance,  3.30. 
Sen 'lac,  battle  of,  sti. 
Se'iMiy  mutiny,  505,  500. 
Septennial  Kill.  40S. 
Seven  Years'  War,  420-*'25. 
Se-ve'riis,  2S. 
Sey'niiiMr,  .lane,  25S. 
Shaftesbury,  .Vnthony  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl 

of,  80.'.!  37:i-.'<V.V 
Shakespeare.  Willlain,  '290,  '291. 
Sheep  rai.slnjf,  13,  '231. 
Shelburne,  l-Jirl  of,  i:». 
Shelley.  Percy  Uysshe,  477. 
Sher'i-dan,  Klihanl  B.,  449. 
Sheriir,  5-*,  liKt,  131. 
Ship  money,  3H. 
Shipbuildliif;.  4ii3. 
Ships,  147.  212.  '234 
Shires.  iin;anl/atlon  of.  .'is,  .7.1. 
Shriwsbnry,  battle  of,  2H. 
Shrewsbury,  Earl  ami  Hnl.  "f  ■■•^>.  :i'.'l.  |ii7 
Siberian  railway,  W.'. 
Sicily,  IM.  401.' 
Sidney.  Sir  Philip.  2"»-,  2''.' 
SlkA.v  500.  501.  .'i<C.. 
Sll'n-re},  •*•>. 
Siin'nel,  Ijunb<Tt.  250. 
Slm'ony,  203. 
SInil,  5UI). 
SInS'p.-,  .•50'2. 
Si'Hiinl     l-jirl.  sO. 


Six  .Vets,  478. 

Slovery,  obolishwl,  472,  4s.7,  488. 

in  South  .Vfrica,  .'lOl,  .'i<r2. 

in  early  history.  M. 

the  .V.siento,  441.V 
Sli'po  Bay,  2>l. 
Sluys  (slois),  boltloof.  191. 
Smith.  .\dam.  4ai,  451,  .'►40. 
Sunifrclini.'.  41.'i,  410. 
Social  reforms,  4S7,  4SS ;  nee  Life. 
Soke  men,  lO-S. 
Solemn  league  and  Covenant,  311.  »>9.,  856, 

a%s. 

Solemn  Petition  and  .Vdvice,  84S. 

Som'erj,  Lord,  391. 

Som'ersot.  Edmund,  Duke  of,  '2:11,  '2.^'.. 

Somerset,  Edward  Seymour,  Duke  of,  '2t'>5. 

Somerset,  Henry,  iMike  of,  '2;W. 

Sonp  schools.  15;*. 

Sophia,  Electress  of  Hanover,  395. 

SoH-dan',  «ee  Sudan. 

South  .Vfrica  I'ompany,  .527. 

South  Sea  Bubble.  41.3,  414. 

Southey,   Kolnrt.  470. 

Spain,  ulliunce  as;airist  France.  .390,  4.'i0. 

alliance  with  France,  417,  457. 

and  the  .Netherlands,  279.  2S0.  294. 

cessions  from  (ireat  Britain.  43.5. 

ChurU-s  l.'s  war  with,  300. 

culoniul  trade  disp\ite  with,  410. 

colonics  of,  'i«.l,  301,  497. 

commercial  treaty  with,  2.'i«l. 

Cromweir.s  war  with.  :J47. 

dispute  over  succession.  .39.3.  39.'>. 

Drake's  attacks  upon.  2'^1.  2^2. 

Florida  ce<le<l  to  Cirval  BritAln  by,  425. 

helps  Irish  relwls,  276. 

Portuiral  annexed  to,  '296. 

Seven  Years'  War,  4'23. 

under  Ferdinand  of  Aracon.  247. 

war  atrainst  Elizabeth,  2v2-2'v5. 

War  of  .lonkin*'-'  Far.  410.  417. 

War  of  Sp:ii  "       -  11,  4til-UVi. 

war  to  riTM  i:tt. 

war  with  I  ■  -  ''-'0. 

Welliii|.'ton's  campaign  in,  4<°>4. 
Spanish  .\rmada.  ■2vj-2s4. 
Spanish  Xellii  rlands,  30:1,  .Stt.'i.  .396.  401. 
Spanish  Succes-liin,  .394  ;  War  of,  44)1-405. 
S/,ntiili>r.  409.  44s. 
S|iecnlation,  47n. 
S|«.t,r..r.  MiTb.rt    .'1.32. 

;  ■         ■    j:mi. 

448. 

.''>tainloni  iinili;p,  battle  of,  S,5. 
Stamp  Art.  4'W 

•I.e.  12S. 
I. 
-  •  iif,  3»9.  .31'^. 


xl 


INDEX 


Statute  of  1285,  IT". 

Statute  of  Laborers,  210. 

Statute  of  Mortmain,  IT". 

Statute  of  Pra'inuiii'rc,  198,  xiv. 

Statute  of  I'rovisors,  198,  2U. 

Statute  of  Wales,  ITl,  1T2. 

Statutes  of  AVestiiiinster,  ITT. 

Steam  eng'ine,  442,  443. 

Steamship  lines,  489,  546. 

Steele,  Sir  Kichard,  409. 

Steelyard,  212. 

Stelnkirk,  battle  of,  -390. 

Stephen,  King,  121-124. 

Steward,  101. 

Stig-'and,  Archbishop,  81. 

Stil'i-cho,  33. 

Stirling,  1T4,  185. 

Stonehenge,  21. 

Stour'bridge,  foir,  149. 

SUme,  John,  290. 

Stratford,  Thomas  Wentwortli,,  Earl  of,  309, 

310,  31T,  318. 
Strath-clyde',  42,  43,  TO. 
Strode,  William,  320. 
Stuart,  Arabella,  302. 
Stuart  kings,  3T0. 

and  Parliament,  300-381. 

fall  of,  3T1-3S1. 

restoration  of,  355-3GT. 
Studies,  medifeval,  202. 
Subinfeudation,  90,  ITT. 
Subsidy,  308. 
Sudiin',  518,  519,  .52(1. 
Sue-to'ni-us  (swi"-)  Paull'nus.  2T. 
Su-ez'  Canal,  51S. 

Suffo/k,  Michael  do  la  Pole,  Karl  of,  1'.I5. 
Suffo/k,  William  de  la  Pole,  Karl  of.  230,  231. 
Suffrage,  226,  485,  511,  512. 
Sun'derland,  Kiirl  of,  3T6,  3T9,  391. 
Su-ri-nam',  361. 
Surrey,  Earl  of,  288. 
Surrey,  Sir  Philip,  292. 
Sussex,  4T. 
Sut-tee',  505. 
Suzerain,  96. 
Sweden,  alliance  with,  .363,  390. 

in  Napoleonic  wars,  459,  463. 
Sweyn,  King,  T2. 
Swift,  Jonathan,  409. 

Ta'de-mii,  Al'ma,  533. 

Tal'lages,  198. 

Tan-gier',  3T5. 

Tariff,  482,  483,  492,  494,  547. 

Tasmania,  438,  499.     , 

Tatler,  409,  448. 

Taxation,  arbitrary,  30T-309. 

Convention  Parliament  determines,  3ST. 

Danegeld,  Tl,  101,  108,  134,  ITT. 

during  war  with  Fi-aiice,  4T0. 


Taxation,  excise  tax,  3,56,  415. 

in  feudal  system,  144. 

in  fourteenth  century,  198. 

in  Ste])hen's  reign,  122. 

income-tax,  492. 

land  tax,  under  William  I.,  101. 

of  American  colonies,  429-432. 

of  clergy,  1T8,  1T9. 

of  imports  and  exports,  ITT,  483,  492. 

of  personal  property,  ITS. 

Peel's  compromise  tariff,  492. 

poll  tax,  30,  198,  211. 

[irotective  tariff  relaxed,  482,  483. 

Roman,  30. 

Tithe  and  Commutation  Act.  4ST. 

tonnage  and  poundage,  3(iT-3()9,  318,  356. 

under  WiUiam  II..  116. 
Tea,  tax  on,  429,  4S0. 
Tel-el-Ke-bir  ,  518. 
Telegraph,  489. 
Telford,  Thomas,  489. 
Temple,  Sir  William,  863. 
Tenants,  mesne,  96. 
Tenants  in  chief,  96. 
Tennyson,  Lord  Alfred,  .532. 
Tenure  of  land,  aee  Land. 
Test  Act,  365,  8TT,  483. 
Teutonic  invasion,  12,  21,  S3,  36-52,  65. 
Tewkes'bury,  battle  of,  23T. 
Thackeray,  William  M.,  5-32. 
Thames  (temz),  IT. 
Than'et,  36. 
Thgf/ns,  56,  5T,  T2,  T3. 
Thet>dore  of  Tarsus,  50. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  26T. 
Thirty  Years'  War,  305.  ' 

Ticket-of-leave  men,  499. 
Til'sit,  treaty  of,  462,  463. 
Tinehe-brai'  (tuNsh-),  b.attle  of,  121. 
Tithe  and  Commutation  Act,  4ST. 
Tithe  War,  489,  490. 
Tithes,  109,  110. 
Toleration  Act.  3sT. 
Tone,  Wolf,  4T3. 

Tonnage  and  poundage,  30T-309,  318,  3.56. 
Tories,  in  power,  438,  482. 

in  William  III.'s  reign,  391. 

new  party,  428,  456. 

origin  of  name,  3T4,  3T5. 

principles  of,  39T. 
Tories  Tersus  Whigs,  400-410. 
Tor'res  (-rash)  Ve'dras  (-drash),  464. 
Tos'tig,  Earl,  82,  85. 
Tow'lon,  460, 
Toi(-lo!(g«',  465. 
ToM-ra/ne',  128,  15T. 
Tournaments,  208. 
Tournay',  battle  of,  404. 
Towrs,  44. 
ToMr-villf",  Admiral,  390. 


INDEX 


xli 


Tower  of  London,  90. 

Towns,  lit  iMiil  ol  iwc'lflh  century,  146. 

.•l.;»rliT«l.  H-5.  U4. 

of  ISriton.*,  ■-»■.'. 

M:i|.lo.  -IVi.  iU. 

TohmV"'"'  •^"•'-  ^-*'''  **-• 

Town^iuii.l,  fliarl.s,  429,  431. 

Townsliii's.  •"•■*,  "'9. 

Tow 'ton.  l.altU'  of,  5S5. 

Trailc,  "tr  Coiiiiiierct'. 

Tm<lc>  iuiioM>.  4n->.  4>9. 

Truf-al-car'.  lujttle  of.  461. 

Tran.si>ortation,  4+1,  44.\  4^. 

Transii»»tantiatlon,  -'iW.  SiV.,  4*3. 

Triin.-i  va./l',  Wi,  rtlT.  .V»6->V.'s. 

Treasurtr.  101. 

Trt-aiiiiry  department,  under  William  I.,  101. 

Trial  by" jury,  132.  1T6. 

Triennial  Act,  39». 

Triiiii'itii  iifcex'iiilag,  .'>3. 

Trii.le  Alliance.  363. 

Troyes  (trwa  i,  treaty  of,  223. 

Tudor  rulers,  •-'•«.  -.M.VJUT. 

Tunis,  pirates  of.  :i47. 

Turkey,  497,  49-<,  r><Nt. 

frimean  War.  .'>< n*-'.) M . 

Kus.sian-Turl;i*li  War,  514,  515. 
Tvler,  Wat,  195,  211. 
Tyndall.  .lohn,  533. 
Ty-rone",  Earl  of,  2S5. 

U'dall.  Nicholas,  29o. 

ril'landers  (nit'-),  52". 

I'lin  (oolmK  462. 

Ulster,  276,  47.'-, 

Union  of  Kncland  and  Ireland,  47:?. 

Union  of  Kn>rlan<l  ami  Scotland.  40.'.,  4li6. 

I'niteil  Irislmien.  473. 

Unit<-<1  Kitiirdoiii  of  r.reat  Britain  and   Ire 

lan.l.  474.  475. 
Unlte«l  Netherlands.  279,  2S0;   nff  Holland. 
Unlte<l  Slates,  Kerinir  Sen  controversy,  .VJ." 
Civil  War,  510. 
^^ove^nrllent  of,  .'►41,  542. 
tnide  privlleires  with,  4^3. 
Warof  Isl2,  iCC. 
war  with  Spain.  KC. 
Univer*llle»,    t'atliollc    and    Protestant    dl' 
seiiters  adiiiltte<l  to,  514. 
prowrth  of,  201.  2<r.>. 
in  twelfth  century,  153. 
the  new  learnini;  in,  2«i9. 
Ur'lKin  II.,  l'o|«'.  119. 
U-ri  eo'lil  iltli.  31. 
U'ther  I'endniir'on,  43. 
Utilitarian  pliUosophy,  4.'iO, 
U'treo/it,  In-aty  <'f.  4»»5. 
Union  of,  279. 

Valentine.  WK  34i9. 

Van  Dvck'.  Anthony,  XVJ. 


an  Tromp,  rornellus.  'Uii.  3i». 

ane.  Sir  Henry,  319,  32s. 

assal,  96. 

auilols  (vo-dwfi')  Protestant-s,  :t47. 

aNX-liair,  446. 

n'ables.  .Vtlininil,  'M'. 
enemhle  IU-.|e,  44. 

e-ne-zue'la  <-zwe)  controversy,  r>25,  526. 
ornon,  Adndral,  416,  417. 
er-sailles  (-sa'y),  treaty  of.  i'M. 

r-u-lii'inl-nni.  43. 

'sp:'i'>ian  (-zlii-an>,  27. 

to  power.  Mil. 
ictoria,  Queen.  4s.\  .'Jt?. 
lenna.  Congress  of,  466. 
i'tro.  2>2. 
ik'inss,  66,  70. 
ill.  74. 

illajre,  at  end  of  twelfth  century.  14.'). 

il'lcins,  dlsapiwaranee  of,  211. 

discontent  ainonjr.  21",  211. 

enfranchisement  of,  141,  143. 

homes  of,  106,  107. 

status  of.  103. 

wat'es  of,  2t>9,  210. 

TlU-neMV*'',  Admiral,  460,  461. 

il'l/ers,  Georpe,  xef  Buckin);ham. 

Inrll.  24^,  292. 

irjriiila,  e.donization  of,  314,  297. 

is'i-t'oths.  invasion  of  Italy,  :1«. 

'iitiini  iif  I'leiK  llie  Ploinnan.  203. 

ladivos-iok"  (vAs).  .V29. 

or'ti-eern.  83,  62. 

otiniu'  by  ballot,  512. 


W:Vdy  Hiirra,  519. 
Waife  system.  209.  210. 
Wa'irriim  (va'»,  buttle  of,   464. 
Wnketleld,  battle  of,  23.'.. 
Wales.  Anplo-Saxons  and,  42,  43.  ((iir:i> 
(Harold>"<l. 
aniie.xe«l  by  KdwanI  I..  171.  172. 
Ili'iirv  ll.'s  conipiests  In.  12>*. 
Henry  VII.  (Tudor)  aid*"-!  by,  2:19,  240, 
Henry  VIII. "s  policy  In,  2.'«. 
Insurn-ctions  of,  2I\  -'W. 
Wallace.  William,  174. 
W:d  laVhia,  :.<»2. 
Wall.r.  Sir  William.  32><.  3:10. 
Walllinrfonl,  treaty  of,  124. 
Walls,  lioman.  In  HHluIn,  2S,  29. 
W«l'|H.le.  Sir  IJoU-rt,  413-416. 
WBr-lntrAam,  Sir  Krnncl*,  2sl. 
Walter,  H.itM.rt.  130. 
Wanvllke,  21. 
Wap'en-Ukes,  .'iS. 
Warof  ispj,  46.'.. 
W8r..f.lenkln--.  Kar.   IK..  H7 
War  of  the  .Xii-trl.iii  Smre.slon.  417 
\V  ,r  ..f  1 1..-  l:,..,  .    ■.•::j-jio. 


xlii 


INDEX 


"War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  401-405. 
Warbeck,  Perkin,  250. 

AVar' M'ifk,  Earl  of,  opposes  Richard  II.,  195. 
"Warwick,    Eichard    Neville,  Earl    of  (King 

Maker),  234-237. 
Washington,  George,  433. 
Watch  and  ward,  176. 
Waterloo',  406,  467. 
Watling  Street,  26,  80. 
Watt,  James,  443. 
Watts,  George  Frederick,  533. 
Webster.  John,  351. 
Wedinore,  peace  of,  68. 
Weights  and  measures,  71,  101,  406. 
AVe'i-hrti-we'i,  531. 

Well«g'ley,  Sir  .Vrthur  (Duke  of  Wellington), 
militarj'  career,  464-407,  475. 

political  leader,  484,  493. 
Wellesley,  Richard,  475. 
Wel'lington.  Duke  of,  see  Wellesley. 
Wells  Cathednal,  105. 
Welsh,  see  Wales. 

Wentworth,  Earl  of  Stratford,  309,  310,  317. 
Wer'gild,  60. 

Wes'ley,  Charles  and  John,  451. 
Wessex,  41,  47,  50,  51,  70-72,  75. 

supremacy  of,  51,  70. 
West  Indies,  British  victories  in,  423. 

French  possessions  in,  425. 

French  victories  in,  434. 

Jamaica  captured  in,  347. 

Nelson  defends,  400. 
West  Sa.vons,  41,  42 ;  see  Wessex. 
West  Wales,  42,  43  ;  see  Wales. 
Westminster  Abbey,  103. 

borough  of,  145. 

statute  of,  170. 
Wexford,  massacre  at,  839. 
Wheatston,  Sir  Charles,  489. 
Whig  Junto,  391. 
Whigs,  agitation  against,  491. 

in  control,  485. 

in  William  III.'s  reign,  391. 

masters  of  parliamentary  boroughs,  423. 

origin  of  name,  374,  375. 

principles  of,  .397. 

regimes  of  Walpole  and  Pitt,  413-425. 

versus  Tories,  400^10. 
Whistler,  James  A.  McNeill,  533. 
Whit'by,  Synod  of,  49,  61. 


Whitf'field,  George,  451. 
Wilfrid  of  Lindisfarne,  48,  49. 
Wilkes,  John,  4:35,  436. 

William   I.,   attitude    toward    Church,    111, 
112. 

introduces  Jewish  colony,  151. 

reforms  of,  96-102,  146. 

reign  of,  87-91. 
William  II.  (Ilufus),  115-117. 
William  III.,  372,  379,  380,  380-397. 
William  IV.,  4S2-4S5. 
William  of  Normandy,  82,  S3. 
William  of  Valence,  103. 
Win 'Chester,  Northmen  attack,  66. 
Winchester,  Bishop  of,  122,  123. 
Win'waeds-field,  48. 
Wit'an,  49,  57,  72,  76. 
Wit'e-na-ge-mote,  57,  100,  101. 
Witwatersrand  (vit-vii'ters-rant),  526. 
Wolfe,  General,  422. 
Wol'sey,  Thonuis,  255-257,  289. 
Women,  cniployment  of,  471. 
Wood  vilU-s,  23.5,  230,  238,  289. 
Wool,  growth  of  trade  in,  198. 

in  early  commercial  period,  13. 

trade  with  Flanders,  146,  147,  177,189,  212 
AViucfs'ter,  army  in,  825  ;  battle  of,  342. 
AVoreester,  Earl  of.  218. 
Wordsworth,  William,  476. 
Wy'att,  Sir  Thomas,  292. 
Wych'erley,  William,  866. 
Wyc'lif,  John,  195,  203-205,  247. 
Wjnd'/tam  Education  Act,  533,  534. 

Yang'tze  valley,  507. 

York,  Angles  acquire,  42.  * 

archbishopi-ic  of,  47,  110. 

devastated  by  William  I.,  88. 

Harold  at,  85. 

legislative  center,  31. 

Northmen  attack,  60. 

Norwegians  capture.  So. 

Parliament  controls,  329. 
York,  Edmund,  Duke  of,  196. 
York,  House  of,  229,  235-241. 
York,  James,  Duke  of,  see  James  II. 
Yorktown,  433,  4.34. 
Ypres  (e'pr),  212. 

Z«y'der  Zee,  battle  of,  360. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  Sl.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


NOV    29  1845 


^i^ 


€^ 


^'■\I  17    ^v 


'  /    //--.      Rt:G'n  I  n 


26Jan'51CS 


ftflrrrr 


^BRARY  USE    UOV  Q  -  ^^^^  1  ^ 


LlEC  30  1958 


RECEIVED 


DEC    7 '66 -1PM 


REC'D  LD 


oecaitssa 


7UL.   SI 


L.'r'.«?A»?y  rri^^ 


AUG   3\V9 


Z^ 


m-'^ms 


^n  i,D 


?AM    2  1959 


RicCiB.    NOV 


1  tSTi 


25  0CT>61Rfi 


r^  '^'  ^^  ^  ~ 


NOV    9  1961 


LD  21-100w-7,'39(402s 


